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Book 



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IkellooG's Scacbcrs' Xibrar? 

Vol. XV 



THE NATIONAL 

QUESTION BOOK 

A GRADED COURSE OF STUDY 

FOR TEACHERS AND 

STUDENTS 



By EDWARD R. SHAW 

AUTHOR OF " PHYSICS BY EXPERIMENTS," "ENGLISH 
COMPOSITION BY PRACTICE." AND OTHER WORKS 




NEW YORK AND CHICAGO 

E. L. KELLOGG & CO 







v» 



28650 



CVTYP/GHT BV 

E. L. KEKLOGG & CO., 

1887 and 1899. 









j) 






PREFACE. 



Within the past few years there has arisen among all 
classes of teachers a desire for ampler qualification for 
their work. This is shown by the formation of Reading 
Circles, the large and constantly increasing number who 
subscribe for educational papers, the rapid issue of 
works upon education, and the establishment of Summer 
Schools of Methods. Not only are these various agencies 
indications of a desire for better preparation, but they 
also give evidence that there is an imperative demand 
for professional training or fitness. 

Professional fitness for teaching consists primarily in 
a thorough acquaintance with those fundamental studies 
which are employed to give mental discipline as well as 
to furnish that equipment of knowledge most useful in 
the transactions of every-day life. But to know merely 
the studies he is to teach is not sufficient for tha 
teacher. He should, besides, pursue those branches of 
learning which give fulness and ripeness of scholarship. 

Whether a teacher's knowledge is broad and general, 
or whether it is only elementary, there must be coupled 
with it, to give proper fitness, a knowledge of Methods 
of Teaching. Certain principles recognized by educators 
underlie all methods of teaching, but the method itself 
results from actual practice and experience in applying 



IV PREFACE. 

those principles. The possession, therefore, of good 
methods is a work depending solely upon the peculiar 
gifts and powers of each teacher. To possess that 
equipment of knowledge, however, which precedes 
mastery in methods, the teacher can be helped. If he 
have some system or plan of study by which he can 
both test and measure his progress, advancement be- 
comes at once easy and encouraging. A standard so 
arranged as to make it widely accepted, and by which 
teachers can help themselves in making professional 
preparation for teaching, has long been lacking. 

The object of this booh is to aiford such a standard 
and furnish such aid. It gives questions upon a graded 
Course of Study, and is not a collection or compilation 
of questions of all sorts. This Course of Study is based 
upon the average requirements of Normal Schools 
throughout the country, and is in accordance with the 
scheme on the opposite page. 

The scheme of classifying teachers as Third Grade, 
Second Grade, and First Grade is very generally in use, 
though the actual acquirement necessary for each of 
these grades differs, sometimes even markedly so, in 
adjoining counties. It has long been desired by county 
superintendents, school commissioners, and teachers who 
go from one county to another, or from one State to 
another, that these differences should disappear. To 
help toward the accomplishment of such a result has 
been one of the aims kept prominently in mind in the 
preparation of The National Question-Book. 

In the Course of Study each higher grade supposes, 
in addition to its own requirements, a thorough acquaint- 
ance with the subjects in all the grades below. 



PREFACE. 



COURSE OF STUDY. 



Third Grade. 


Second Grade. 


First Grade. 


Professional. 


Arithmetic. 






Algebra. 


Geography. 


Geography. 


Physical Geogra- 
phy- 




History of U. S. 


History of U. S. 




General History. 


Grammar. 


Grammar. 


Grammar. 


Geometry. 


Orthography and 
Orthoepy. 


Rhetoric and Com- 
position. 


English Literature 


Latin. 


Reading. 


Physiology.. 


Physiology. 


Zoology. 




Bookkeeping. 


Bookkeeping. 


Astronomy. 




Civil Government 


Civil Government. 


Botany. 




Alcohol and its 
Effects upon the 
Body. 


Natural Philosophy 


Physics. 


Theory and Prac- 
tice of Teaching. 


Theory and Prac- 
tice of Teaching. 


Theory and Prac- 
tice of Teaching. 


Chemistry. 








Geology. 



The questions given under what is termed the Pro- 
fessional Grade have been selected from the New York 
examinations for State certificates, and represent fully 
the amount required in those subjects for the past ten 
years. 

To the teacher this book will be found to possess a 
threefold advantage. First, it forms substantially a 
syllabus to guide in the thorough presentation of a study, 
and to lead to the discovery of omissions in teaching. 



tfj PREFACE. 

Containing a great amount of new material, the volume 
becomes particularly serviceable to those teachers who 
supplement the work of the text-books by giving their 
classes other matter. 

Second, the book is a source from which to select 
■examination questions, as well as to suggest new forms 
of these. 

Third, the book affords help to the teacher when he 
himself occupies the position of student. One of the 
conditions surrounding his office is that of examinations 
— his license to teach and his promotion depending upon 
these. More or less often he must pass an examination, 
and to do this preparation is necessary. With but com- 
paratively few exceptions, teachers are obliged to make 
their advance-preparation alone. In view of this fact, 
short answers are given to the questions presented in 
the book. These answers, however, are furnished as 
mere guides, and it is, of course, supposed that one who 
is making preparation in any study will amplify these 
fully, using them as an aid rather than as an absolute 
end. 

It will be noticed that no answers are given to the 
questions upon the Theory and Practice of Teaching. 
While to a few of these questions answers satisfactory 
to all could be given, upon many others such a diversity 
of practice and, of course, of opinion obtains, that the 
entire omission of answers has been deemed best. 

No questions have been inserted upon Writing or 
Drawing. The practice constantly gaining ground is 
not to spend time upon the intricacies of analysis. In 
drawing, too, through the influence of industrial work, 
the pupil is brought face to face with models, and 



PREFACE. Vii 

taught to draw them just as they appear, without any go- 
between whatever. In short, the tendency in both these 
subjects is to come at once to the real thing and do it 
as best it may be done, without leading up thereto in- 
directly. 

The National Question-Book is put forth with the 
belief that it will be found a most serviceable work for 
students, teachers, and examiners. It is prepared with 
a sincere belief that it will be the means of advancing 
many a teacher from the Third to the Professional 
Grade — a position of the highest honor if not of the 
highest emolument. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Preface iii 

CHAPTER I. 
Arithmetic. 

Questions for Third Grade 1 

Answers 16 

CHAPTER II. 
Geography. 

Questions for Third Grade 36 

for Second Grade . . . , 49 

Answers — Third Grade 51 

Second Grade 63 

CHAPTER III. 
History of the United States. 

Questions for Third Grade 65 

for Second Grade 80 

Answers — Third Grade 91 

Second Grade 121 

CHAPTER IV. 
Grammar. 

Questions for Third Grade 135 

for Second Grade 148 

for First Grade ^ 157 

Answers — Third Grade 163 

Second Grade 185 

First Grade 207 

viii 



CONTENTS. IX 

CHAPTER V. 

Orthography and Orthoepy. 

page 

Questions for Third Grade 218 

Answers 224 

CHAPTER VI. 
Physiology. 

Questions for Second Grade 228 

for First Grade 237 

Answers — Second Grade 241 

First Grade 249 

CHAPTER VII. 

Alcohol and its Effects upon the Body. 

Questions for Second Grade 253 

Answers 255 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Bookkeeping. 

Questions for Second Grade 259 

for First Grade 261 

Answers — Second Grade 263 

First Grade 266 

CHAPTER IX. 
Civil Government. 

Questions for Second Grade 269 

for First Grade 274 

Answers — Second Grade 277 

First Grade 283 

CHAPTER X. 
Reading. 

Questions for Third Grade 286 

Answers 288 



A CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XI. 
Rhetoric and Composition. 

PAGE 

Questions for Second Grade 290 

Answers 296 

CHAPTER XII. 

Physics. 

Questions for First Grade .... 302 

Answers 310 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Physical Geography. 

Questions for First Grade 319 

Answers 327 

CHAPTER XIV. 

English Literature. 

Questions for First Grade 337 

Answers 342 

CHAPTER XV. 

TnEORY and Practice of Teaching. 

Questions for Third Grade 350 

for Second Grade -. 353 

for First Grade 356 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Algebra, Geometry, Latin, General History, Physics, 
Chemistry, Geology, Botany, Zoology, and Astron- 
omy. 

Questions for Professional Grade 359 

Answers 377 



CHAPTER I 
ARITHMETIC. 

JFor Sfjirtr ©fratre, 

1. Define Arithmetic. What is a unit ? What is a 
number ? 

2. What is the unit of a number ? 

3. What is a concrete number ? An abstract number ? 

4. What is notation ? Name the kinds. Define each. 

5. What is numeration ? What is reading numbers? 
6., What are figures ? 

7. State the law of Arabic notation. 

8. Why is the Arabic system of notation also called a 
decimal system ? 

9. State the office of zero ? What are the significant 
figures ? What other names have they ? 

10. What is a place ? What is meant by the orders of 
units ? By periods? 

11. Distinguish between the French and the English 
system of notation. 

12. Name nine periods beginning with units. 

13. What is the simple value of a figure? What the 
local value ? 

14. Name the fundamental processes of arithmetic. 

ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, MULTIPLICATION, AND 
DIVISION. 

15. Show why we commence at the right to add. 

16. How is addition verified ? 



2 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

17. To what is the difference of two numbers added to 
the less equal ? 

18. How is subtraction verified ? 

19. What kind of a number may a multiplicand, a 
multiplier, or a product be ? 

20. How multiply when there are zeros on the right of 
the multiplicand, on the right of the multiplier, or both ? 

21. What is the office of parenthesis-marks in arith- 
metic ? 

22. How else is division denoted than by the sign of 
division? 

23. If dividend and quotient are given, how find divisor? 

24. If divisor, quotient, and remainder, how find divi- 
dend ? 

25. What kind of numbers may dividend, divisor, or 
quotient be ? 

26. How divide when there are zeros at the right of the 
divisor ? At the right of the dividend ? 

27. Define an exact divisor or factor. What is cancel- 
lation ? 

28. How is division verified ? 

29. What is the reciprocal of a number ? 

30. Illustrate the use of parenthesis and the vinculum. 

31. When the multiplicand has two or more figures, 
where is the first figure of each partial product written, 
and why is it so written ? 

32. In multiplication which factor must be an abstract 
number, or used as such, and why? 

33. Demonstrate that multiplication is a short method 
of performing addition. 

34. Upon what principle is cancellation based ? 

35. What is an even number? An odd number? A 
factor ? 

36. What is a prime number? 

37. When are numbers prime to each other? 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 3 

38. What is a composite number ? 

39. What factors of two or more numbers does the great- 
est common divisor contain ? Define greatest common 
divisor. 

40. What factors of two or more numbers does the least 
common multiple contain ? Define least common multi- 
ple. 

41. Name all the prime numbers from 1 to 100 inclusive. 

FRACTIONS. 

42. Define a fraction; denominator; numerator; terms 
of a fraction. 

43. Define and illustrate unit of a fraction and frac- 
tional unit. 

44. What is the value of a fraction ? 

45. State the general principles of fractions. 

46. What is the force of the word of in compound frac- 
tions ? 

47. Explain fully, showing principles involved, this ex- 
ample : J X \. 

48. Explain fully, showing principles involved, this ex- 
ample: f-f-|. 

49. What are complex fractions ? 

50. What is the value of a fraction multiplied by its de- 
nominator ? 

51. Give your reasons for calling a fraction whose value 
is less than a unit a proper fraction, and one whose value 
is equal to or greater than a unit an improper fraction. 

52. Read correctly tqi> ttto^ to~o> A> two* ioooj tot> 

53. What is the reciprocal of a fraction ? 

DECIMAL FRACTIONS. 

54. Define decimal fractions. 

55. What is the effect of removing the decimal-point 
one place to the left ? One place to the right ? 



4 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

56. What is the effect of annexing a cipher to a decimal 
or removing one from its right ? 

57. How may an integer or a decimal be divided by 1 
with ciphers annexed ? 

58. Write a circulating decimal, and define the term. 

59. Write a repetend, and define the term. 

60. Why do we point off in a product as many decimal 
places as there are in both multiplier and multiplicand ? 

61. Why do we point off in a quotient as many decimal 
places as those of the dividend are more than those of the 
divisor ? 

62. Upon what does the value of a decimal figure de- 
pend ? 

63. What is the difference between decimal fractions and 
common fractions ? 

FEDERAL MONEY. 

64. What is money ? Define Federal money. State the 
unit of Federal money. 

65. Define coin or specie. What are greenbacks ? 

66. What is National currency ? 

67. Name the coins made of gold; of silver; of nickel; 
of bronze. 

68. State what part of the gold and silver coin of the 
U. S. is alloy, and of what the alloy consists. 

69. What is an aliquot part ? What is an account ? 

70. Why are coins alloyed ? 

THE METRIC SYSTEM. 

71. What is the unit of the metric system? Its length? 
How determined ? 

72. Give the meaning of the following terms : deka, hecto, 
kilo, myria, deci, centi, milli. 

73. Name the standard unit of linear, of square, and of 
cubic measures; of measures of capacity and weight. 

74. What is the are ? What the stere ? 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 5 

75. How are the higher denominations in the metric 
system expressed ? How the lower ? 

76. Explain how each unit of measure in this system is 
derived from the metre. 

DENOMINATE NUMBERS. 

77. Define a denominate number. 

78. What is the standard unit of linear measure ? Of 
liquid measure ? Of dry measure ? "What is the standard 
unit of weight ? Of time ? Of circular measure ? 

79. "What is the difference between the Troy and the 
Avoirdupois pound ? 

80. What is meant by a long ton ? By a short ton ? 
SI. How many cubic inches in a wine-gallon ? 

82. What is a civil day ? What is the length of the solar 
year? 

83. What is a board foot ? A board inch ? 

84. Give the dimensions of a cord. What is a cord foot ? 

85. What are duodecimals, and for what used? 

LONGITUDE AND TIME. 

86. What is the greatest difference in time that two 
places may have ? 

87. If two places are in east or west longitude, how find 
the difference of longitude ? 

88. When one is in east and the other in west longitude, 
how is the difference found ? 

89. How does the local time of any place compare with 
the time at places west ? At places east ? Why ? 

PERCENTAGE. 

90. Write a formula showing how to find the percentage 
when base and rate are given. 

91. A formula to find rate from base and percentage. 

92. A formula to find base from rate and percentage. 

93. Define commission ; cost, net cost, and gross cost ; 
price, net price, and gross price. 



6 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

94. What is a broker ? A consignment ? A consignor ? 
A consignee ? 

INSURANCE AND TAXES. 

95. What is the premium? The policy ? 

96. State how to find the sum to be insured in order to 
cover loss and premium. 

97. What is a poll-tax ? What are assessors ? 

98. What is meant by the rate ? 

99. How is the rate found, when the amount to be raised 
and the assessed value of property are given ? 

INTEREST. 

100. What is the 6fo method? 

101. What are days of grace ? 

102. How is exact interest calculated ? 

103. What are partial payments? 

104. Write a promissory note. 

105. Define the terms maker, payee, holder. 

106. What is the face of a note ? 

107. What is meant by an indorsement? 

108. Write a negotiable note requiring indorsement. 

109. Write a negotiable note not requiring indorsement. 

110. Write a joint note. 

111. Write a non-negotiable note. 

112. Write a married woman's note. 

113. What is meant by the maturity of a note ? 

114. State the two general principles upon which nearly 
all the rules for partial payments are based ? 

115. What is compound interest? How is it computed ? 

116. When a man is unable to write his name, in what 
way does he sign a note ? 

DISCOUNT. 

117. What is discount ? What is true discount ? 

118. Define present worth. How is it found ? 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 7 

119. What is bank discount ? Define the proceeds of a 
note. 

120. What is a protest ? 

121. How does the interest on the present worth for the 
given time and rate compare in value with the true dis- 
count of the debt for the same time and rate ? 

122. How do the bank discount and the true discount of 
a debt for the same time compare in value, not reckoning 
grace ? 

123. Write a sight draft. Write a time draft. 

STOCKS. 

124. What is stock ? What is meant by a share ? 

125. What is scrip ? 

126. Define the terms par value, market value, above 
par, at par, below par. 

127. What is an assessment ? What an installment ? 

128. What is meant by gross earnings ? By net earn- 
ings ? 

129. What is a dividend ? 

130. Upon what value of stocks are brokerage, install- 
ments, and assessments estimated ? 

PARTNERSHIP. 

131. Define partnership; capital; assets; liabilities. 

132. If partners furnish equal or unequal shares of cap- 
ital for the same time, how is the profit or loss divided ? 

133. If they furnish equal or unequal shares for different 
times, how is the profit or loss distributed? 

EXCHANGE. 

134. What is exchange ? How many kinds are there? 

135. Write a draft or bill of exchange, and name the 
drawer, payee, and drawee of the draft. 

136. What is meant by the acceptance of a draft ? 

137. What does the par of exchange mean ? 



8 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

138. What is meant by a set of exchanges ? 

139. What is the exchange value of the pound sterling? 
Of the franc ? Of the mark ? 

140. What is meant by the course of exchange? 

EQUATION OF PAYMENTS, AND AVERAGING ACCOUNTS. 

141. What is meant by equation of payments ? 

142. What is average or equated time ? 

143. What is the term of credit? 

144. What is averaging accounts ? 

BATIO AND PROPORTION. 

145. Give an example of two ways in which two num- 
bers may be compared with each other. 

146. Which of these comparisons results in ratio ? 

147. Define ratio. 

148. Define antecedent; consequent; terms of the ratio. 

149. What is the reciprocal of a ratio ? 

150. Define proportion. 

151. Define extremes and means of a proportion. 

152. Write three numbers in proportion, and give the 
name to the second figure used. 

153. Write a direct proportion. 

154. What is a compound proportion ? 

155. From what is the sign of proportion (::) derived ? 

156. In how many forms can a ratio be written? 

157. What is the ratio of \ to ^ T ? 

158. What is the difference between a ratio and a pro 
portion ? 

159. Why are three terms necessary to solve a propor 
tion? 

160. Why is proportion often called Rule of Three ? 

INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION. 

What is a power ? 

161. What is an exponent ? 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 9 

162. How is a common fraction raised to a power ? 

163. How is a mixed number raised to a power ? 

164. What reason is there for calling the second power 
a square? The third power a cube ? 

165. How does the number of figures in the square of 
a number compare with the number of figures in the 
root ? 

166. How does the number of figures in the cube com- 
pare with the number of figures in the root ? 

167. What is a root ? 

168. Define square root. Define cube root. 

169. Make a radical sign, and state its use. 

170. What is the index of the root ? When is it not 
written ? 

171. How else than by the radical sign and index may 
a root be denoted ? 

172. What is a perfect power? What an imperfect 
power ? 

173. How are decimals pointed off in square and cube 
root ? 

174. Tell why in extracting the square or cube root of 
a number we divide it into periods of two or three figures. 

175. How do you find the root of a decimal ? 

176. How is the root of a common fraction found ? 

177. Draw a right-angled triangle, and against each of 
its sides write the name of the side. 

178. Tell how each of these sides is found when the 
other two are given. 

179. How is the sixth root of a number obtained ? 

PKOGRESSIONS. 

180. Define a progression. What are the terms of a pro- 
gression ? 

181. How many kinds of progressions are there ? 
Wherein do they differ? 



IO ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

182. Write an ascending series and a descending series, 
and let the common difference in the last be twice that in 
the first. 

183. Name the five elements or parts that are always to 
be considered in solving problems in progressions. 

184. Write formulas for finding three of the parts. 

185. Write a geometrical progression, ascending series. 
Write one, descending series. 

186. Write formulas for finding three parts or elements 
of a geometrical series. 

MENSURATION. 

187. How do you find the area of a triangle from the 
base and altitude? 

188. How when the three sides are given? 

189. How is the area of an oblong found ? 

190. How the area of a trapezoid ? 

191. How the area of a trapezium ? 

192. What is the diagonal of a figure? What the 
perimeter ? 

193. How is the circumference found when the diameter 
is given ? 

194. How is the area of a circle found ? 

195. Show that in finding the area of a triangle, a 
trapezoid, a hexagon, and a circle each may be regarded as 
changed into an oblong. 

196. What is a solid ? What a prism ? 

197. How find the solid contents of a triangular prism ? 

198. How the solid contents of a rectangular prism ? 

199. What is a cylinder ? How is its lateral surface 
found ? 

200. How find its solid contents ? 

201. What is a sphere? How find the surface of a 
sphere ? 

202. How its contents when the diameter is given ? 



A RI THME TIC FOR THIRD GRADE. II 

203. Define a pyramid. 

204. How is its lateral surface found ? How its solid 
contents ? 

205. What is the frustum of a pyramid ? 

206. Define a cone. 

207. How is its lateral surface found ? How its solid 
contends ? 



EXAMPLES FOR TEST. 

1. Find the greatest common divisor of 256, 480, and 

. . ■ 38 - .4 16 -.8 5 7 9 

at is the value of — - 1 - X 7—? 

iat is the sum of i^i and t^T ? 

tract the square root of 4.932841. 
>w does the number of cubic inches in a ball 8 
diameter compare with the number in one 4 in. 
. ;eter ? 

ow many yards of carpeting 2 ft. wide will be 
d to cover a floor 15 ft. long and 10 ft. wide ? 

7. {a) If I sell f of an article for what I paid for the 
whole, what per cent do I gain ? (b) If I sell the whole 
for what I paid for f of it, what per cent do I lose ? 

8. How shall a pair of boots that cost $4 be marked so 
that I may fall 16§# from marked price and yet make 25$ 
on cost ? 

9. The difference in time between two places is 11 hr. 
and 33 min. What is the difference in longitude ? 

10. Worth Brothers bought a cargo of 120 tons of coal, 
f of which belonged to William and f to Clarence Worth. 
J" 1 "" M , coming in on the arrival of the cargo, said: 
" , I will give you $150, and we will divide the 



12 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

coal equally among us." How shall the $150 be divided 
between the Worth Brothers ? 

11. What is the area and circumference of a circle 
whose diameter is 15 ft. ? 

12. A milkman put a pint of water into every gallon of 
milk. If pure milk is worth 6 cts. a quart, how much 
were 12 gals, of the milkman's worth ? 

13. If 82 men build a wall 36 ft. long, 8 ft. high, and 4 
ft. thick in 36 da. in how many days will 48 men build 
a wall 64 ft. long, 6 ft. high, 3 ft. thick ? Solve by propor- 
tion and give reasons for each ratio. 

14. Find the cube root of 19.54 carried to four decimal 
places. 

15. Which is the better investment and how much ~- 
$100: 8$ stock bought at a premium of 20$, or bf< 
bought at a discount of 20$ ? 

16. f +f s = what? 

17. What sum must be invested in Missouri 7s at 
secure an annual income of #1000 ? 

18. A promissory note is given payable on dema 
$975 at 7$. How much will settle this note 4 yr. 
15 da. after date? 

19. What is the exact time in days between J; 
1857, and Jan. 20, 1860? 

20. A merchant marked cloth to sell @ 12$ advance on 
cost, but owing to a rise in the goods marked it up 8$ on 
the former retail price. What per cent on cost was it last 
marked ? 

21. From what price can I fall 20$ on flour which cost 
me $5.80 per bbl. and still make 12$ ? 

22. How many cubic feet of snow are there upon an acre 
of land covered evenly to the depth of 5 in.? 

23. Keduce 53684" to numbers of higher denomination. 

24. To what number does -k bear the same sts 
between 5 and 17 ? 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 3 

25. How many cubes 3 in. on a side are there in a 
cubic feet? 

26. 7 fur. 8 rd. 2 yd. = what decimal of a mile? 

27. At $1.25 per gallon what cost 1 bbl. 15 gal. 3 qt. of 
molasses ? 

28. A ladder 60 ft. in length was found to reach just to 
the eaves of a building when its foot was 36 ft. from the 
foundation. What was the height of the building ? 

29. What must be the depth of a cylindrical cistern 
whose diameter is 8 ft. that it may contain 80 bbl. ? 

30. The diameter of the moon being to that of the earth 
as 3:11, what is the relation between their volumes? 

31. A merchant bought goods at 25$ below their nomi- 
nal price and sold them at 20$ above, thereby making 
$1920. How much did he invest ? 

32. If a ball of thread is 4 in. in diameter, what part of 
the thread will be left when the diameter is reduced to 
% in.? 

33. What is the time of day, provided the time past 
noon equals f of the time to midnight ? 

34. Bought a $500 note, rate of interest 10$, due 6 mo. 
from the time I bought it, which was 2 yr, 8 mo. from its 
date. I paid $580 for the note, but had to borrow $400 at 
the bank for 30 da. at 2$ a month, grace allowed. How 
much did I make, allowing money to be worth 7$ ? 

35. If I buy bonds for 85 cts on a dollar which pay 
3$ semi-annual interest, what per cent per annum does 
this yield me on my investment ? 

36. Three men, A, B, and C, agree to do a certain piece 
of work. A and B can do the work in 6f da.; B and C 
in 12 da.; and A and O in 10 da. How long will it 
take each separately to do it ? 

37. A cistern is 4 metres long, 24 decimetres wide, and 
80 centimetres deep. How much water will it hold in 
cubic metres ? In litres ? 



14 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

3S. The longitude of St. Petersburg is 39° 19' east; of 
New York 74° 41' west. When it is 1 o'clock in the after- 
noon at St. Petersburg, what time is it at New York ? 

39. Find the difference between the true and the bank 
discount on $2500 payable in 3 mo. at 7$, making no 
allowance for grace. 

40. Find the cost of plastering the walls and ceiling of 
a room 7 metres long, 5 wide, and 3^ high, at 20 cts. per 
square metre ; deducting for a base-board 25 centimetres 
wide, around the room, and 18 square metres more for 
doors and windows. How high is the room in feet and 
inches ? 

41. Having received a stock dividend of 8$, I now own 
297 shares. Find how many shares I had before the divi- 
dend was declared. 

42. If two men, working 10 hr. a day for 94£ da., dig 
a trench 33J yd. long, 2f wide, and 2f deep, find how 
many hours a day 35 men must work for 11 da., to dig a 
trench 90 yd. long, If wide, and 2£ deep. 

43. Of a debt, one third is to be paid in 2 mo., 
one fourth in 6 mo., one sixth in 10 mo., and the bal- 
ance in 1 yr. Find at what time, in equity, the whole 
should be paid, if all the payments were converted into 
one. 

44. A speculator had 5000 bbl. of flour that cost him 
$8 per bbl. ; he sold 30$ of the lot at an advance of 10$ 
on the cost, and 50$ of the remainder at a further advance 
of 2£$ on the cost ; and he closed out the lot at $8.50 per 
bbl. Find how much he made, and what percentage of 
the cost. 

45. Find what principal will amount to $1000 in 3 yr. 
6 mo. at 3£ $, compound interest. 

46. Upon a note for $1000, dated January 1, 1878, due 
in one year, and bearing interest at the rate of 6$ from the 
date of maturity, the following paymer^ were made : 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 5 

August 16, 1879 $300 

February 12, 1880 200 

October 3, 1881 50 

Jauuray 27, 1882 19 

May 31, 1883 22 

What was due January 1, 188-4, by the United States rule 
lor the computation of partial payments ? 



y 



16 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 



ANSWERS TO ARITHMETIC. THIRD GRADE. 

1. Arithmetic is the science of numbers. 
One, or a single thing, is a unit. 

A number is a unit or a collection of units. 

2. One of the kind expressed by the number. 

3. A number used in reference to some object is a concrete 
number. An abstract number is one not applied to any object. 

4. Notation is the method of writing numbers. Arabic and 
Roman. Arabic notation expresses numbers by figures, Roman 
notation expresses numbers by letters. 

5. Numeration is the method of reading numbers. Reading 
numbers is dividing them into periods, giving to each its proper 
name. 

6. Figures are characters used to express numbers. 

7. Figures increase tenfold in value each place to the left, and 
decrease tenfold in value each place to the right. 

8. Because the order of units increases by the scale of ten. 

9. Zero is used to mark vacant orders. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 
Digits. 

10. The place is the position a figure occupies with reference to 
the unit. By the orders of units is meant the increase of the unit 
by tens. The groups of figures containing the hundreds, tens, 
and units of any denomination are periods. 

11. The French system divides a number into periods of three 
figures, naming them units, tens, hundreds ; the English system 
divides a number into periods of six figures, naming them units, 
tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands, and hundreds of 
thousands. 

12. Units, thousands, millions, billions, trillions, quadrillions, 
quintillions, sextillions, septillions. 

13. The simple value of a figure is the number of units it ex- 
presses ; the local value, the number it expresses as determined 
by the place it occupies from units. 

14. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division. 

15. Because the lowest order of units is at the right, and also 
that we may carry the tens as we proceed. 

16. By adding each column in a reverse order. 

17. The difference of two numbers added to the to 
the greater number. 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. \J 

18. Add the remainder to the subtrahend, and if the result 
equals the minuend the work is verified. 

19. A multiplicand may be an abstract or concrete number ; a 
multiplier must be an abstract number ; a product may be ab- 
stract or concrete as the multiplicand is abstract or concrete. 

20. Multiply the significant figures together, and place as many 
ciphers on the right of the product as there are zeros on the right 
of multiplicand or multiplier or both. 

21. They signify that the expression within them is to be taken 
as a whole. 

22. By writing the dividend over the divisor with a short line 
between them. 

23. By dividing the dividend by the quotient. 

24. By multiplying the divisor by the quotient and adding the 
remainder. 

25. The dividend maybe abstract or concrete ; the divisor must 
be abstract ; the quotient will be abstract or concrete as the divi- 
dend is abstract or concrete. 

26. Cut off the ciphers in the divisor and as many figures in 
the dividend. Divide the rest of dividend by the significant fig- 
ures in the divisor. If there is a remainder, annex the figures 
cut off the dividend to the right of remainder for true remainder. 
If there is no remainder, the figures cut off from dividend are 
the true remainder. When there are zeros at the right of the 
dividend, if the significant figures of the dividend are exactly 
divisible by the divisor, annex as many ciphers at the right of 
the quotient as there are ciphers at right of, dividend ; otherwise 
treat zeros at the right of the dividend as if they were significant 
figures. 

27. An exact divisor or factor of a number is one which will 
divide it without a remainder. Cancellation is a method of 
shortening computations by rejecting equal factors from the 
divisor and dividend. 

28. Multiply the divisor by the quotient; to the product add 
the remainder. 

29. One divided by that number. 

30. (8 + 3 - 2) x 4, 8 + 3 — 2 x 3. 

°1. The first figure of each partial product is written under 
the multiplying figure, because it is of the same order. 

32. The multiplier, because it shows how many times the 
multiplicand is taken. 

33. 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 = 30, or 6 taken 5 times. 

34. Dividing both dividend and divisor by the same number 
does not change the value of the quotient. 

35. An even number is one exactly divisible by 2. An odd 
number is one not exactly divisible by 2. A factor of a number 



1 8 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

is one of the numbers which being multiplied together produce 
that number. 

36. A prime number is one that cannot be produced by the 
multiplication of any numbers except itself and 1. 

37. Numbers are prime to each other when the only number 
by which they can be exactly divided is 1. 

38. A composite number is one that can be resolved into 
factors. 

39. The common prime factors. 

40. All the prime factors of the numbers. 

41. 1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 
67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97. 

42. One or more of the equal parts of a unit is a fraction. 
The denominator is the number showing into how many equal 
parts the unit is divided. The numerator is the number showing 
how many parts are expressed. The terms of the fraction are 
the numerator and denominator. 

43. The unit which is divided into equal parts is the unit of a 
fraction, and one of the equal parts into which the unit is divided 
is the fractional unit. In the fraction J, the unit of the fraction 
is 1, the fractional unit \. 

44. The value of a fraction is the quotient of the numerator 
divided by the denominator. 

45. Multiplying the numerator or dividing the denominator 
multiplies the value of the fraction. Dividing the numerator or 
multiplying the denominator divides the value of the fraction. 
Multiplying or dividing both numerator and denominator by the 
same number does not change the value of the fraction. 

46. It is equal to the sign of multiplication. 

47. |x f. Multiply f by 5 by multiplying numerator by 5 and 
it equals *£-. It was required to multiply by \ , hence the product 
V- is 7 times as great as the true product; and to get the true 
product divide by 7, which is done by multiplying the denomi- 
nator by 7, and it equals \\. Hence f x f = \\. 

48. % -T- f . Divide | by 3 by multiplying the denominator by 3 
and it equals f x 3 = ff. f has been divided by 3. It was re- 
quired to divide by f, hence the quotient ff is 5 times as small 
as true quotient, and to get the true quotient multiply |^ by 5, 
which is done by multiplying the numerator by 5 = |^. There- 

49. Complex fractions are those having a fraction for their 
numerator or their denominator or for both. 

50. The value of a fraction multiplied by its denominator 
would be equal to the numerator standing alone. 

51. As a fraction is one or more of the equal parts into which 
a unit is divided, only divisions of a unit expressed by fractions 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 9 

with the numerator less than the denominator are properly frac- 
tions. Hence such a fraction is called a proper fraction. When 
the numerator is equal to or greater than the denominator it ex- 
presses a unit or more than a unit and is not properly a fraction; 
hence it is called an improper fraction. 

52. T ^ T , One one-hundred-first; T ^, one hundredth; ^^ four 
hundredths; jfc, two twenty-seconds; TTJ Vff> one thousandth; 
nftai nve thousandths; T § T , three one-hundred-firsts; y^, five 
one-hundred-seconds. 

53. The fraction inverted. 

54. Decimal fractions are those in which the unit is divided 
into tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc. 

55. Removing the decimal point one place to the left diminishes 
the value of the number 10 times; one place to the right increases 
the value of the number 10 times. 

56. It has no effect. 

57. By removing the decimal point as many places to the left as 
there are ciphers. 

58. A circulating decimal is one in which the same figure or set 
of figures recurs in the quotient: .6666 4- ; .272727 +. 

59. A repetend is the figure or set of figures repeated. In .6666 
■t-, 6 is a repetend; in .272727 + , 27 is a repetend. 

60. .526 x .062 = T %\ x T || ¥ = jUUh 5 or, written deci- 
mally, .032612. By comparison it is seen that the decimal places 
of the product equal those of the multiplicand and multiplier. 

61. Division is the opposite of multiplication, the quotient an- 
swering to multiplicand, the divisor to multiplier, and the divi- 
dend to product; the decimal places in the dividend are equal to 
those in the product; the decimal places in the divisor to those in 
the multiplier; hence the decimal places in the quotient must be 
equal to those of the dividend minus those of the divisor. 

62. The value of a decimal figure depends upon the place it 
occupies from the decimal point. 

63. The name common fractions is applied to any class of frac- 
tional quantities, while the name decimal fractions is applied to 
only those whose denominator, expressed or understood, is 10, or 
any power of 10. 

64. Money is a measure of value and a medium of exchange. 
Federal money is the national currency of the United States. The 
unit of Federal money is the dollar. 

65. Coin or specie are pieces of metal stamped and having a 
value fixed by law. Greenbacks are paper money of the United 
States, consisting of Treasury notes issued by the Government. 

66. National currency is the notes issued by the national banks. 

67. Of gold — double-eagle, eagle, Imlf-r.'iglc, quarter-eagle, 
three-dollar piece, and dollar; of silver — dollar, half-dollar, quar- 



20 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

ter-dollar, and dime; of nickel — 5-cent and 3-cent pieces; of 
bronze, the cent. 

68. One tenth is alloy. The alloy of the gold coin is composed 
of one tenth silver and nine tenths copper; of the silver coin, 
pure copper. 

69. An aliquot part is a factor or an exact divisor. An account 
is a business record of debits and credits between two persons. 

70. The gold and silver in their pure state are too soft and flex- 
ible for coinage, and are therefore hardened by compounding 
them with a baser metal or alloy. 

71. The metre, 39.37 + inches. It is nearly one ten-millionth 
part of a quadrant of the earth's meridian circle. 

72. From the Greek we have deka, 10; hecto, 100; kilo, 1000; 
myria, 10,000: from the Latin, deci, 10; centi, 100; milli, 1000. 

73. The unit of linear measure is the metre; of squaie measure, 
the sq. metre; of cubic measure, the cu. metre; of measures of ca- 
pacity, the litre, equal to 1.0567 liquid qts., or .908 dry qts.; of 
weight, the gram, equal to 15.432 grains. 

74. The are is the unit of land measure, equal to a sq. dekame- 
ter; the stere is the unit of wood measure, equal to one cubic 
metre. 

75. The higher denominations are expressed by prefixing to the 
unit the Creek syllables deka, hekto, kilo, myria; the lower de- 
nominations by prefixing to the unit the Latin syllables deci, 
centi, milli. 

76. The are is a sq. metre; the stere is a cu. metre; the litre is 
equal to one cu. decimetre; and the gram is equal to the weight 
of one cu. centimetre of distilled water at its greatest density, 
39.8° Fahr. 

77. A denominate number is a term applied to concrete num- 
bers which represent money, weight, or measure. 

78. The yard. The gallon. The bushel. A Troy pound. The 
mean solar day. A degree. 

79. The Troy pound contains 5760 grains, and the avoirdupois 
pound contains 7000 grains. 

80. A long ton contains 2240 pounds, a short ton 2000 pounds. 

81. 231 cu. in. 

82. A day adopted by government for business purposes. In 
most countries it begins and ends at midnight, is divided into 
two parts of 12 hours each, the former being designated a.m., the 
latter, p.m. 365 days, 5 h., 48 m., 46 sec. 

83. A board foot is 1 ft. long, 1 ft. wide, and 1 in. thick. A 
board inch is T V of a board foot. 

84. A cord is a pile 8 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 4 ft. high. A 
cord foot is £ of a cord. 

85. The parts of a unit resulting from continually dividing by 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 21 

12. They are applied to the measurement of extension, the foot 
being taken as a unit. 

86. 12 hours. 

87. Subtract the less longitude from the greater. 

88. By adding the two longitudes together, and if their sum is 
more than 180°, subtract this from 360°. 

89. It is earlier. It is later. Because the earth revolving on 
its axis from west to east causes the sun to rise earlier at places 
east of us, and set later at places west of us. 

90. Base x Rate = Percentage. 

91. Percentage -f- Base = Rate. 

92. Percentage -s- Rate = Base. 

93. Commission is an allowance to agents for the transaction 
of business. The cost is that which is paid for anything. Net 
cost is cost without adding any other expenses, as freight, storage, 
commission, etc. Gross cost is net cost plus all expenses. The 
price is that for w T hich anything is sold, or the value asked for it. 
The price minus all expenses, as commission, freight, and other 
expenses, is net price. Net price plus all expenses is gross price. 

94. A broker is one who buys and sells stocks, bills of exchange, 
etc. Goods sent to an agent to be sold are called a consignment. 
The person sending them is the consignor. The person to whom 
they are sent the consignee. 

95. The sum paid for insurance. The agreement between the 
insurance company and person insured. 

96. Divide the value of the property by 1, minus the rate. 

97. A personal tax assessed upon males over 21 years of age. 
Persons appointed to appraise property for the purpose of tax- 
ation. 

98. The per cent on the valuation of property to be taxed. 

99. By dividing the amount to be raised by the assessed value. 

100. Take half the number of months for cents and one sixth of 
the days for mills, and multiply the principal by their sum. 

101. A note does not become legally due until three days after 
the specified time. These three days are called days of grace. 

102. By reckoning the entire number of years, and the exact 
number of days over, calling the days 365ths of a year. 

103. Payments in part of a note at different times. 

104. $600. New York City, June 1st, 1889. 
Six months after date, I promise to pay to the order of George 

Adams six hundred dollars, with interest at 6%, value received. 

Paul Jones. 

105. The person w T ho signs the note is the maker. The one to 
whom it is made payable, the payee. The one w T ho has posses- 
sion of it, the holder. 



22 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

106. The sum whose payment is promised. 

107. A statement of the amount of a payment and the date 
when made, written on the back of a note. 

108. $600. New York City, June 1st, 1889. 
Sixty days after date, I promise to pay to the order of George 

Adams six hundred T o°o dollars at First National Bank, value re- 
ceived. Paul Jones. 

109. $600. New York City, June 1st, 1889. 
Eight months after date, I promise to pay to George Adams or 

bearer six hundred dollars, at First National Bank, value received 
with interest. Paul Jones. 

110. $600. New York City, June 1st, 1889. . 
Six months after date, we jointly and severally promise to pay 

George Adams or order six hundred dollars at First National 
Bank, value received. Paul Jones. 

John Rogers. 

111. $600. New York City, June 1st, 1889. 
Six months after date, I promise to pay to George Adams six 

hundred dollars at my house, 123 Sixth Avenue, value received. 

Paul Jones. 

112. $600. New York City, June 1st, 1889. 
Three months after date, I promise to pay to the order of Paul 

Jones six hundred dollars at First National Bank, value received; 
hereby charging my separate estate and property. 

Sarah Prime. 

113. The day upon which it becomes legally due. 

114. (1) The principal cannot be lessened until the accrued 
interest is paid. (2) Interest cannot draw interest. 

115. Interest upon interest. By computing the interest upon 
the principal and interest, combined at regular intervals. 

116. By making a cross or mark. 

117. A deduction made from a sum of money to be paid. True 
discount is a deduction made for the payment of a sum of money 
before the time when it is due. 

118. That sum which, if put at interest for the given time and 
rate, will amount to the sum due. By dividing the debt by the 
amount of $1 for the given time and rate. 

119. Bank discount is simple interest on the amount due, paid 
in advance. The face of the note minus the discount. 

120. A written declaration made by a notary public that a note 
has been duly presented to the maker and has not been paid. 

121. It is the same as the true discount. 

122. Suppose the note were for $150, and the time of discount 
90 days at 6%. The bank discount would be $150 x .015 int. on 
$1 for 90 days = $2.25. 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 23 

$150 -s- §1.015 amount of $1 for 90 days = $147.7832 present 
worth of note. 

$150 — 147.7832 = $2.2168 true discount; $2.25 bank discount — 
$2.2168 true discount = $.0332 difference. 

$3.2168 x .015 int. of $1 for 90 days = $.0332. 

Hence bank discount is greater than the true discount by the 
interest on the true discount for the given time and rate. 

123. $600. First National Bank, 

New York City, June 1st, 1889. 
At sight, pay to the order of George Adams six hundred T ° ° dol- 
lars, value received. 
To First National Bank, ) Paul Jones, Cashier. 

Chicago, 111. ( 

$600. New York City, June 1st, 1889. 

Three days after sight, pay to the order of George Adams six 
hundred dollars, value received. 
To Thomas Andrews. Paul Jones. 

124. The fund or capital of an incorporated company. One of 
the equal divisions of the capital stock. 

125. Written statements specifying the number of shares to 
which holders are entitled. 

126. The value named on the face of the scrip is the par value ; 
the sum for which it sells, the market value ; when stocks sell for 
more than par value, they are above par ; for the same as their 
face value, at par ; and for less than their face value, below par. 

127. A sum assessed upon the stockholders to make up deficien- 
cies or losses. A portion of the capital stock paid by the stock- 
holders. 

128. The gross earnings are its entire receipts. The gross earn- 
ings minus all expenses. 

129. A portion of the earnings divided among the stockholders. 

130. Upon the par value. 

131. The association of two or more persons in business for 
their common profit is partnership. The money employed in the 
business is the capital. The assets are the property of a person 
in his possession. The liabilities are his debts. 

132. It is divided in proportion to the amount of capital each 
one furnishes. 

133. Each takes such a part of the gain or loss as the capital 
of each partner for a month is of the entire capital for a month. 

134. Exchange is the method of making payments between 
distant places without transmitting money. Two; domestic and 
foreign. 

135. $600. New York City, June 1st, 1886. 
Fifteen days after sight, pay to the order of the First National 



24 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

Bank, Chicago, 111., six hundred ^% dollars, value received, and 
charge to the account of Paul Jones. 

To" George Adams, Chicago, 111. 

The drawer is Paul Jones, the payee is the First National 
Bank, the drawee is George Adams. 

136. Agreeing to pay it when it is due, which is done by the 
drawee writing " Accepted" across the face of the draft, with his 
name and the date. 

137. The standard by which the value of the currency of dif- 
ferent countries is compared. 

138. Three bills of the same date and tenor, named respec- 
tively the first, second, and third of exchange. They are sent by 
different mails, so that if one is lost another may be presented; 
after one is paid the others are void. 

139. $4.8665. $0,193. $0,238. 

140. The fluctuation of bills from their par value. 

141. Finding the average time of a payment of two or more 
sums due at different times. 

142. The date at wiiich the debts may be equitably settled by 
one payment. 

143. The term which must pass before the debt is due. 

144. Finding the mean or equitable time of payment of the 
balance of an account. 

145. Finding how much one is greater or less than another, 
and finding how many times one number is contained in another. 

146. The latter. 

147. The relation which two numbers bear to each other, found 
by dividing the first by the second, is ratio. 

148. The first number of the ratio is the antecedent; the 
second the consequent. The antecedent and consequent taken 
together are the terms of the ratio. 

149. 1 divided by the ratio. 

150. Proportion is an equality of ratios. 

151. First and fourth terms of a proportion are the extremes, 
the second and third are the means. 

152. 4 : 6 : : 6 : 9. 6 is the mean proportional. 

153. 5 men : 9 men : : 15 days, time it requires 5 men to do the 
work : (27 days 1 time it requires 9 men to do the w T ork.) 

154. A proportion in which either ratio is compound. 

155. From the sign of equality by erasing its middle part. 

156. 12 : 48, £f . 

157. £ = §£, fr = if. The ratio of £ to ^ is 27 : 18. 

158. Ratio is the relation existing between two numbers found 
by division, and proportion is an equality of ratios. 

159. Since the product of the extremes equals the product of 
the means, the two like terms given form a product of which the 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 25 

unlike term is one factor. The other factor is the quotient of 
this product divided by the given factor. 

160. Because three terms are given to find the fourth. 

161. A small figure placed at the upper right-hand part of a 
numoer to denote what power is to be taken. 

162. By raising each of its terms separately to the required 
power. 

163. Reduce it to an improper fraction and then raise it to the 
required power. 

164. The two dimensions of a square being equal, its area is 
obtained by finding the second power or square of either dimen- 
sion. The three dimensions of a cube being equal, its volume 
equals the third power or cube of either dimension. 

165. There are twice as many figures in the square, or one less 
than twice as many. 

166. The cube contains three times as many, or one or two less 
than three times as many. 

167. One of the equal factors of a number is a root. 

168. Square root is one of the two equal factors of a number. 
Cube root is one of the three equal factors of a number. 

169. \/ It indicates that the root is to be extracted. 

170. A figure placed above the radical sign to indicate the root 
to be taken. It is not written when the square root is to be taken. 

171. By a fractional exponent, the denominator showing what 
root is required. 

172. One whose root can be exactly obtained. One whose root 
cannot be exactly obtained. 

173. By beginning at tenths and passing to the right, pointing 
off 2 figures in square root and 3 figures in cube root. 

174. In square root into periods of 2 figures, because the power 
contains 2 times, or 1 less than 2 times, as many figures as there 
are in the root; and the cube contains 3 times, or 1 or 2 less 
than 3 times, as many figures as are in the root. 

175. Begin at tenths and point off towards the right, and 
extract the root as in whole numbers. 

176. If the numerator and denominator are perfect powers, 
extract their roots ; if not, reduce the fraction to a decimal and 
extract its root. 

177. Hypothenuse, A Perpendicular, 

Base. 

178. Base squared + perpendicular squared = hypothenuse 
squared ; extract the square root. 

Hypothenuse squared — base squared = perpendicular squared ; 
extract the square root. 

179. By extracting the square root of the given number and 
the cube root of the result. 



26 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

180. A progression is a series of terms which increase or 
decrease by a common difference or a common ratio. The first 
and last terms are the extremes ; the intermediate terms are the 
means. 

181. Two. Arithmetical progression increases or decreases by 
common difference, geometrical progression increases or decreases 
by a common ratio. 

182. Ascending series, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 ; common difference, 3. 
Descending series, 30, 24, 18, 12, 6 ; common difference, 6. 

183. The first term, the last term, the number of terms, the 
common difference or ratio, and the sum of all the terms. 

+ CSA 7 / -.S 7 (a + 1\ 2s 

184. I = a + (n — 1) d : s = — — - n ; n = ; . 

\ 2 J a + I 

185. Ascending series, 2 : 4 : 8 : 16 : 32 : 64. Descending series, 
576 : 144 : 36 : 9. 

186. I = a?' n ~ ] ; s = ; a = 



r — 1 1 r"- 1 

187. Multiply the base by half the altitude. 

188. From half the sum of the three sides subtract each side 
separately, multiply the half sum and the three remainders 
together, and extract the square root of the product. 

189. Multiply the base by the altitude. 

190. Multiply the length between the parallel sides by one half 
their sum. 

191. Multiply the diagonal by half the sum of the perpendicu- 
lars drawn from the vertices of the opposite angles to the diag- 
onal. 

192. A straight line joining the vertices of two angles not adja- 
cent. The length of the line bounding it. 

193. Multiply the diameter by 3.14159. 

194. Multiply the circumference by half the radius. 

195. Left for the student. 

196. A solid is that which has length, breadth, and thickness. 
A solid having two ends equal polygons parallel to each other, 
and its sides parallelograms. 

197. Multiply the area of the base by the height of the prism. 

198. Multiply the area of the base by the altitude. 

199. A roller-shaped solid of uniform diameter, having for its 
ends two equal parallel circles. 

Multiply the circumference of the base by the altitude. 

200. Multiply the area of the base by the altitude. 

201. A solid every point of whose surface is equally distant 
from a point within called the centre. 

Multiply the diameter by the circumference. 

202. Multiply the square of the diameter by 3.14159, which 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 2J 

equals the surface. Surface multiplied by \ of diameter equals 
contents. 

203. A solid whose base is a polygon, and which has for its 
other faces three or more triangles terminating in a common 
point called the vertex. 

204. Multiply the perimeter of the base by one half the slant 
height. 

Multiply the area of the base by \ of the altitude. 

205. The part remaining after the top has been cut off by a 
plane parallel to the base. 

206. A solid whose base is a circle, and whose convex surface 
tapers uniformly to the vertex. 

207. Multiply the perimeter of the base by \ the slant height. 
Multiply the area of the base by \ of the altitude. 

SOLUTION OF EXAMPLES. 



4, 



256)480(1 32 
256 " 


)1296(40 
128 ~~ 




224)256(1 
224 - 


~16)32(2 
32 




32)224(7 
224" 


Ans. 16. 


38. 
.4 


1«- 1 

.8 2 


4- 7 T \ = 19.25 


)37.6 
18.8 


4)15.2 
+ 3.8 = 22.6; 22.6 


— 19.25 = 3.35 

Ans. 3.35. 




LUi 

8 2 1+4- 

7 4 9 1 X +i " 
12^9 0f 4=3 

4.932841(2.221 
4 ■ 

42^93 

84 

442 ) 928 

884 

4441 ) 4441 


Ans. 1\. 




4441 


Ans. 2.221. 



28 ARITHMETIC TOR THIRD GRADE. 

5. Solids are to each other as the cubes of their like dimensions. 

8 3 = 512 512 : 64 

4 3 = 64 Ans. 8 times as many. 

6. 150 sq. ft. in floor, 

6 sq. ft. in 1 yd. carpet, 

25 yds. needed. Ans. 25 yds. 

7 3 1 

(a) In selling - I gain — , or 33£#. 

Ans. 33£# gain. 

4 1 

(6) In selling — I lose -, or 25$. 
4 4 

Ans. 25$ loss. 

8 1 

As I wish to make 25$ or - on the cost, the boots sell for $5. 
4 

1 5 

16f$ = -, what I must fall, $5 = — of marked price, hence 
6 o 

marked price is $6. ' Ans. $6. 

9. The sun apparently passes through 360° in 24 hrs., therefore 
1° = 4 min., and 1' = 4 sec. 

Difference in time 11 hrs. 33 min. -*• 4 gives 173° — 15'. 

Ans. 173° - 15'. 

10. William Worth owns 72 tons and gives 32 tons to John 
Moore. 

Clarence Worth owns 48 tons and gives 8 tons to John Moore. 
Moore pays $150 for 40 tons or $3f per ton. 
William Worth receives 32 times $3f or $120. 
Clarence Worth receives 8 times $3| or $30. 

Ans. William Worth $120, 
Clarence Worth $30. 

11. Taking the ratio of diameter to circumference as 1 : 3.1416 
3.1416 x 15 = 47.124 ft. circumference. 

23.562 half of cir. x 7.5 half of diameter = 176.715 sq. ft. 

Ans. Cir. 47.124 ft. 

Area 176.715 sq. ft. 

12. To each gal. or 8 pts. 1 pt. of water is added. Hence \ of 
the mixture is water. 

12 gal. pure milk @ 6 cts. a qt. = $2.88. 

12 gal. of milkman's is worth $2.88 — $.32 (\ of $2.88) or $2.56. 

Ans. $2.56. 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 



2 9 



13. 



48 
36 



days 

36 : Ans. 



Ans. 61£ days. 



1200 . . 
360 19.540 I 2.6934 

36 8 

1596 1 11540 
9576 



202800 

7020 

81 

209901 



1964000 
1889109 



21708300 
24210 

9 

21732519 



2175674700 
323160 

16 

2175997876 



74891000 

65197557 
9693443000 
860399150^ 



Ans. 2.6934. 



15. 



16. 



8% stock gives — — or 6f# int. 

5% stock gives—- or 61% int. 
80 

6£ int. on $100 is $6.66f 
6i int. on $100 is 6.25 



.41| 



Ans. 8% stock better by 41f cts. on $100. 

Ans. 16. 



16 64 _ 80 



17. Every dollar will gain—- of itself. It will take as many 

7 
dollars to gain $1000 int. as — — is contained times into 1000. 



1000 x 104 



= 14857-f times. 



Ans. $14857f 



30 

18. 


ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

.3354£ Int. of $1 for 4 yr. 9 m. 15d. at 7% 
975 




162* 

16770 

23478 
30186 




327.03125 
975. 


19. 


$1302.03125 Ans. $1302.03 + 

350 days in 1857 

365 days in 1858 

365 days in 1859 

20 days in 1860 

1100 Ans. 1100 days. 



20. Cost, 1001 

1st marking price 112$ of cost 
2d marking price 120§f# of cost 

advance 20§f£ Ans. 20f|#. 

21. In order to make 12$ I must sell for 112£ of $5.80, or $6,496, 

and as I wish to fall 20^ or-, this is- of the asking price. 

6.496 x 5 _ n Hn 

=$8.12. Ans. $8.12. 

22. 1 A. has a surface of 43560 sq. ft., which multiplied by the 
thickness— ft., gives 18150 cu. ft. Ans. 18150 cu. ft. 

23. 60 | 53684" 



60 | 894' 44" 

14° 54'. Ans. 14° 54' 44". 

24. 5 : 17 : : £ : ? 

17 x i-5 = l T V Ans. 1 T V 

25. 1 cu. ft. = 1728 cu. in. 

1 cube 3 in. on a side contains 27 cu. in. 

27)1728 

64 Ans. 64 cubes. 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 



26. 5£ 



3 yds. 





11 
40 

8 


4.000000 




8.36363600 rds. 

7.2090909 furlongs. 

~.9011363ln!Ie~ Ans. .9011363 mile. 


27. 


1 bbl. = 31.5 gal. + 15.75 gal. = 47.25 gal. 

$1.25 x 47.25 = $59.06i. Aus. $59,061. 


28. 


&y \ 


60* - 36 2 = 2304. 

V2304 = 48. Ans. 48 ft. 



231 

29. 80 bbl. x 31* = No. of gal. 80 x 31£ x ?— = No. of cu. 

1728 

ft. in cistern. 
231 cu. in. in 1 gal. 

231 

— — cu. ft. in 1 gal. 8x8 (radius squared) x .7854 = area of 
1728 
circular base in sq. ft. 

( 80 x 31 ^ x J^s) - (B x 8 x .7854) = 6.7 + 

Ans. 6.7 + ft. 

30. Solids are to each other as the cubes of their like dimen- 
sions, hence they bear the relation of 3 3 : ll 3 or 27 . 1331. 

The earth has therefore 49/ T times the volume of the moon. 

Ans. 49-/ T . 

31. He gained 45$ of nom. price. 

$1920 is 45$ of nominal price. .45 )1920.00 

$ 4266f nom. price. 
He bought for £ of nom. price or $3200. Ans. $3200. 

32. 1st ball : 2d ball : : 4 3 : 2 3 or as 64 : 8. Hence £ of the 
thread must be left. Ans. £. 

time from noon to midnight is 12 hrs. Let f -— time 
md f = the time to midnight. Then 12 hrs. = f , f or 
44 hrs. or 4 o'clock and 48 min. 

Ans. 4 o'clock and 48 min. 



32 ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

34. $500 in 3 yrs. 2 m. amounts to $658.33£. 

Amt. of $580 for 6 m. at 7% is $600.30 
Int. of $400 at 2% for 33 d. is 8.80 

$609.10 
$658.33£ - $609.10 = $49.23. • Ans. $49.23 gained. 

35. The investment yields $6 in every $85 = -fe of 100$ or 7^%. 

Ans. 7 T a T £. 

36. A and B do F % in 1 day = -&. 
B and C do T ^ in 1 day = ^. 
A and C do ^ in 1 day = fi 6 . 

A, B, and C do £ of gj — £ in 1 day. 
$ what A, B, :.nd C do in 1 day — & (A and B in 1 da.) = ^ C 
in 1 day. 

| what A, B, and C do in 1 day - /,, (Band C in 1 da.) = T ^ A 
in 1 day. 

£ what A, B, and C do in 1 day — -fa (A and C in 1 da.) = T \ B 
in 1 day. 

Therefore C will require 60 days, A 12 days, and B 15 days. 

L A 12 days. 

Ans. -] B 15 days. 

( C 60 days. 

37. 4 m. long. 

2.4 m. wide 4 x 2.4 x .8 = 7.68 cu. m. 
.8 m. deep. 
A litre is .001 of a cu. metre, hence there are 7.68 h- .001= 7680 
litres. 

A < 7.68 cu. m. 
1 7680 litres. 



38. 39° 19' 

74° 41' 



h. 


min. 


1 





7 


36 



1 5)114 d if. in lougitude 5 24 

7h. 36 min. dif. in time. 

Ans. 24 min. past 5 o" 



ARITHAfETlC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

39. Amt. of |1 for 3 mo. at 7% = $1.0175. 
1.0175)2500 



2457.002 


2500 
.0175 




2500 
2457.002 


125 
175 
25 




42.998 True dis. 






43.7500 
42.998 


Bank dis. 




.752 


Ans. .752. 



40. 7 x 3£ x 2 = 49 sq. m. 

5 x 3| x 2 = 35 sq. m. 
7x5 = 35 sq. m. 



119 sq. m. — 24 sq. m. = 95 sq. m. 

$.20 x 95 = $19.00 Cost. 



Deductions: 

.25 x 7 x 2 = 3.5 sq. m. 
.25 x 5 x 2 = 2.5 sq. m. 



6 sq. m. Base board. 
18 Doors and windows. 



39.37 = no. 
3i 


of 


24 sq. ra. 
in. in M. 


118 11 

19 68i 


.483 ft, 
12 


2)137.795 in. 
11.483 ft. 


5.796 in. 



Ans \ Cost $19 ' 

^ Height of room 11 ft. 5 + in. 



34 
41. 


ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 

297 shares is 108# of the previous number. 
1.08)297 


42. 


275 shares. Ans. 275. 

35 : 2 1 h h 
22 : 189 | 
135 : 360 \ : : 10 : 8 
63 : 44 | 

8 : 7 J 

Ans. 8 hours. 



43. 1 2 

- in 2 mo. = - payable in 1 mo. 
o o 





1 

4 


" 6 " 


_6 
~~4 


" 




1 
6" 


"10 " 


_10 
~~6 


u 




1 

4 


" 12 " 


_12 

" 4 

41 

6 


(( 

u 


01 


• the whole 


in 6| 


mo. 



Ans. 6| mo. 

44. 30£ of 5000 = 1500 bbl. 5000 x $8 = $40000 cost, 
5000 - 1500=3500 bbl. 1500 x $8 x $1.10 = $13200 selling price. 

50£ of 3500 = 1750 " 1750 x $8 x $1,125 = $15750 " 
1750 bbl. = remainder. 1750 x $8.50 = $14875 



43825 
40000 



$ 3825 gain. 
3825 

4o6To = SWgain - 

Ana ) 13835 gain. 
( 9#* of cost. 

45. Compound int. of $1 for 3£ yrs. at 6£ is $1,128 

1.128 =$886.52 + 

Ans. $88' = 



ARITHMETIC FOR THIRD GRADE. 35 

46 Prin. on int. from Jan. 1, 1879, 

to Aug. 16, 1879, $1000 
Int. to Aug. 16, 1879, 37.50 



Amt. $1037.50 
Payment Aug. 16, $ 300 

New prin , $ 737.50 
Int. from Aug. 16, 1879, to Feb. 12, 1880, $ 21.63 

Amt. $ 759.13 
Payment Feb. 12, $ 200 

New prin. $ 559.13 
Int. from Feb. 12, 1880, to Oct. 3, 1881, $ 55.07 

Amt. $ 614.20 
[As the int. is greater than payment, there 
is no deduction of payment.] 

Int. fyom Oct. 3, 1881, to Jan. 27, 1882, $ 11.669 

Amt. $ 625.869 
Payment Oct. 3, $50 $ 69 

" Jan. 27, 19 

New prin. $ 556.87 

$69 
Int. from Jan. 27, 1882, to May 31, 1883, $ 44.92 

Amt. and new prin. $ 601.79 
Payment smaller than int. and not deducted. 

Int. from May 31, 1883, to Jan. 1, 1884, 21.067 

Amt. $ 622.857 
Deducting last payment of $22 22 



$ 600.857 
Ans. $600,857. 



/ 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 



CHAPTER II. 

GEOGRAPHY, 

JFor £f)trtr <£ratre. 

MATHEMATICAL. 

1. Define the Equator, the Tropics, and the Polar Cir- 
cles. 

2. What is latitude ? What longitude ? 

3. Give the width, in degrees, of each zone. 

4. Upon a circle as a basis make a diagram that shall 
illustrate the relative position of the Equator, the 
tropics, the Polar Circles, and the zones, naming each. 

5. Define meridian circles. Meridians. 

6. What are the proofs that the earth is round ? 

7. What does the earth's rotation on its axis produce ? 

8. Of what use are parallels and meridians ? 

9. Give the cause of the change of the seasons. 

10. Define a continent. An ocean. A sea. The sea. 

11. Name the continents in order of size. The oceans 
in order of size. 

12. How many degrees from the North Pole to the 
Tropic of Cancer ? 

13. What is meant by the cardinal and semi-cardinal 
points ? 

14. Which has the greater circumference — a parallel of 
30° or a Tropical circle ? 

15. In what direction does the sun cast a shadow at 
noon in the south temperate zone ? 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. Z7 

16. What part of the earth's surface has no sunlight 
in June ? 

17. Why are the Polar Circles located 23^° from the 
Poles ? 

18. At what place on the globe must one be to have 
the sun in the zenith on the 22 d of June ? 

19. What is the situation of places having the same 
length of day as our own ? 

20. AVhy does a telegram sent from New York at noon 
reach St. Louis before noon ? 

21. Do degrees of latitude differ in length ? 

22. Do degrees of longitude differ in length ? 

23. What is the length of the Equatorial diameter of 
the earth ? How many miles shorter is the Polar diam- 
eter ? 

24. From what place is longitude now generally com- 
puted ? 

25. What name is given to the circles on which latitude 
is measured ? 

26. What meridian separates the eastern and the west- 
ern hemispheres ? 

27. Distinguish between the rotation and the revolu- 
tion of the earth. 

28. What is meant by the great circle of illumination ? 

29. What is the Ecliptic ? 

30. What is meant by the Equinoxes ? 

31. What is meant by the Solstices ? 

NORTH AMERICA. 

32. Draw quickly an outline map of North America^ 
using no construction-lines. 

33. Describe the general features of the surface of 
North America. 

34. What part of North America is directly west of 
Great Britain ? 



38 GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

35. Why is the climate of British Columbia warmer 
than that of Newfoundland and Labrador ? 

36. Where is the Isthmus of Tehuantepec ? 

37. Name the provinces of Canada. Name and locate 
the capital. The chief city. Its historic city. 

38. What island at the mouth of the St. Law- 
rence ? 

39. Does Iceland lie north or south of the Arctic 
circle ? 

40. Which is the highest mountain peak of North 
America ? 

41. Name the volcanoes in the United States and Brit- 
ish America. 

42. Describe the greatest river system of North 
America. 

43. Fill out these blanks: Mexico contains about 

•inhabitants, descended from Its climate 

is Its surface is The prin- 
cipal products are The Government 

is The chief cities are , located 

The City of Mexico may be reached 

from New York by The Territory 

of Mexico was much larger, but 

44. What reason can you assign for the almost con- 
stant fogs on the banks of Newfoundland ? 

45. Where is tne deepest part of the Atlantic Ocean ? 

46. Where the deepest part of the Pacific ? 

47. Locate Miquelon and St. Pierre islands, and state 
to what country they belong. 

48. Where does mahogany grow ? 

49. What are icebergs, and how formed ? 

50. For what is the Bay of Fundy noted ? 

51. What is the ruler of Canada called ? 

52. Name eight of the largest seas, gulfs, and bays that 
indent the coast of North America. 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 39 

53. Name the three principal divisions of the West 
Indies. 

54. Name the four Greater Antilles. 

55. What two countries in Hayti ? Name their capi- 
tals ? 

56. What is the capital of Cuba? Name and locate 
two other important cities on this island. 

57. Name the capital of Jamaica. What other city on 
the island ? 

58. What is the capital of Porto Rico ? 

59. Name the principal productions of the West Indies. 

60. Indicate the correct pronunciation of the following: 
Antilles, Appalachian, Manitoba, Jalapa, Newfoundland, 
Nueces, Cape Breton, Labrador, Oaxaca, Tehuantepec, 
Mazatlan, Hayti, Caribbean, Costa Rica, Frobisher, 
Belle Isle, Barbadoes. 

Note. — One requisite demanded in teaching Geography to- 
day is the correct pronunciation of geographical names. Accord- 
ingly, we have placed after each division some of the names most 
frequently mispronounced. 

UNITED STATES. 

61. What parallel is the northern boundary of New 
York State ? 

62. On what parallel is the northern boundary of the 
United States ? 

63. Name the straits and rivers which connect the 
great lakes with one another and with the ocean. 

64. Which is farther west — New Orleans or Lima ? 

65. Name in order of size the five largest cities of the 
United States. 

66. What is the effect of the Japan current on the west 
coast of the United States ? 

67. What is the outlet of Lake Champlain ? 

68. For what is Lake George noted ? 
3 



40 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 



69. Name and locate the largest iron-manufacturing 
city in the United' States. 

70. What is the largest seaport ? 

71. What is the largest manufacturing city ? 

72. What city is the greatest grain market. 

73. What city is the greatest cotton port ? 

74. Name the States of the Union, using their abbre- 
viations. 

75. Locate the Black Hills. 

76. Name two important islands belonging to the State 
of New York. 

77. Which State extends farthest north — Maine or 
Minnesota ? 

78. Where is Grand Island ? 

79. Locate Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. 

80. To what State do they belong ? 

81. What large bay forms the eastern part of Lake 
Huron ? 

82. What large bay on the west border of Lake Huron? 

83. What is the population of the United States? 

8 1 . Name and locate five cities situated on the Great 
Lakes. 

85. Name a State or section of the United States dis- 
tinguished for (a) wheat ; (b) cotton; (c) corn; (d) cat- 
tle; (e) sugar; (f) iron; (g) copper; (//) gold; (/) silver, 

(./) fruit - 

86. Name and locate a city famous for the production 

or export of (a) sponges; (b) turpentine; (c) tobacco; (d) 
wheat; (^) ships. 

87. Where is Harvard University? Yale College? Cor- 
nell University? Vassar College? 

88. What States have the greatest population? The 
greatest area? The greatest mineral wealth? 

89. How can one go from Chicago by water to the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence and the Gulf of Mexico? 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 4 1 

90. What is the chief value of Alaska to the United 
States? 

91. Why is the air warmer over the Gulf Stream than 
in other parts of the ocean? 

92. How many rivers can. you name that flow wholly 
between two States? 

93. What is the Crescent City? The Hub? The City 
of Churches? The City of Elms? The Queen City of 
the Lakes? The Monumental City? The Smoky City? 
The City of the Straits? 

94. What States were named after kings and queens? 

95. How are the States of the Union represented on our 
flag? 

96. For what is Mt. Desert Island noted? 

97. Where are the Saddleback Mountains? 

98. Name the two States whose northern boundary is 
just midway between the Equator and the North 
Pole. 

99. Where are the pictured rocks? 

100. What is the number of United States Senators? 

101. What is the highest peak in the United States? 

102. What State of the United States was once a re- 
public ? 

103. In honor of whom was the District of Columbia 
named? 

104. Locate the Staked Plain. 

105. Why was the " Staked Plain" so called? 

106. Give an account of the National Park. 

107. Where is the centre of population? 

108. AVhere are the Thousand Islands? 

109. What is meant by the Dry Tortugas? 

110. What valuable metals are found in the United 
States,, and principally in what localities? 

111. How does the area of the United States compare 
with that of Europe? 



42 GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

112. What proportion of the population are negroes 
and mulattoes? 

113. Explain what is meant by Standard Time. 

114. Indicate correctly the pronunciation of the follow- 
ing : St. Augustine; Cairo ; Cheyenne ; Katahdin ; Los 
Angeles ; Gila ; Iowa ; Kittatinny ; New Orleans ; Per- 
nambuco; Sabine; San Diego; San Joaquin; San Jose; 
Sault St. Mary; Tucson; Wilkesbarre; Willamette; Louis- 
iana; Utah; Terre Haute; Santa Fe; Arkansas; Ho- 
boken; Louisville; Reading; Yosemite; Huron. 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

115. Draw an outline ma}3 of South America, using no 
construction-lines. 

116. Describe the general features of the surface. 

117. Why has South America no large rivers flowing 
into the Pacific Ocean? 

118. Locate the island of Juan Fernandez. 

119. State some fact which gives it special interest. 

120. Name the capes which form the north, east, 
south, and west extremities of South America. 

121. What is the general direction of the Isthmus of 
Panama? 

122. What countries of South America does the equa- 
tor cross? 

123. Why are there rainless districts on the west coast 
of South America? 

124. Along what three rivers are the principal lowland 
plains of South America? 

125. Draw a diagram to show the Amazon and its five 
principal tributaries, writing upon each tributary its 
name. 

126. What latitude has the mouth of the Amazon? 

127. What is the length of the railroad across the 
Isthmus of Panama? 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 43 

128. What ports are connected by this railroad? 

129. What name is given to that arm of the ocean into 
which the Parana River empties? 

130. What is the highest mountain peak of South 
America? 

131. Describe the river system of South America. 

132. Beginning on the eastern coast of South America, 
follow the equator around the globe and name in regular 
order the bodies of water, countries, and islands through 
which it passes. 

133. Locate and describe the Pampas region. The 
Selvas. The Llanos. 

134. Compare as to rainfall both slopes of the Andes 
in Northern Chili with those of Colombia and Ecuador. 

135. State what parts of South America have abund- 
ant rains, and what parts are dry; and give the reasons 
therefor. 

136. If the Andes mountains were on the east side of 
South America, what effect would it have upon that con- 
tinent ? 

137. Describe the marshes along the Amazon. 

138. What large republic in South America ? 

139. What reasons can you assign for the slow progress 
of civilization in South America? 

140. From what tree is quinine obtained? 

141. In Caracas, what language is spoken? In Lima? 
In Rio Janeiro? In Valparaiso? 

142. In what state of South America is the largest pro- 
portion of Europeans found ? 

143. Name the principal products of Brazil. Of the 
Guianas. Of Venezuela. Of the Argentine Confederation. 

144. Indicate correctly the pronunciation of the follow- 
ing: Argentine; Bahia; Bogota; Cayenne; Guayaquil; 
Illimani; Llanos; Maracaybo; Para; Parana; Tapajos; 
Tocantins; Trinidad. 



44 GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 



EUROPE. 

145. What countries are comprised in the British Isles? 

146. Draw an outline map of Europe, using no con- 
struction-lines. 

147. Describe the general features of the surface of 
Europe. 

148. How does the coast-line of Europe compare, in 
proportion to its area, with that of any other continent? 

149. Describe the Rhine. The Rhone. 

150. Where is the Golden Horn? Why so called? 

151. Name the great rivers of Europe which rise in 
the Alps. 

152. Name the mountain range extending through the 
whole length of Italy. 

153. Name the peninsulas of Europe, the waters be- 
tween which they lie, and the nations which occupy them. 

154. Name ten of the chief exports of Great Britain. 

155. On what river is the city of Rome? 

156. Name and locate seven islands of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. 

157. Name the gulfs which open into the Baltic Sea. 

158. How are the Baltic and North Seas connected? 

159. Where is Oxford University? 

160. Name the countries that touch the Mediterranean. 

161. Name the republics of Europe. 

162. What whirlpool off Norway? 

163. What do you know of the Mt. Cenis tunnel? 

164. How is the sea kept from overflowing Holland? 

165. Where is the Giant's Causeway? Give a brief 
description of it. 

166. What is remarkable about the rivers of Spain and 
Portugal? 

167. Where is the Isle of Man? What are its inhabi- 
tants called? 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 45 

168. Where is the Levant? 

169. What city is called the Eternal City? 

170. At what town in Europe is the sun seen in summer 
till midnight? 

171. What is an avalanche? 

172. Where is the Eddy stone lighthouse? 

173. What are the five powers of Europe? Name the 
ruler of each. 

174. What are the inhabitants of Norway called? Of 
Denmark ? Of Wales ? Of Finland ? Of Lapland ? 

175. What name is given to the ruler of Russia ? 

176. What can you say about Rome ? About Venice ? 
About Vesuvius ? About Naples ? 

177. What do we find in the very high valleys of 
Switzerland instead of rivers ? 

178. To what country does Iceland belong ? 

179. What three noted volcanoes in the Mediterranean 
Sea? 

180. Locate the great low plains of Europe. 

181. Why has Great Britain a warmer climate than 
Labrador ? 

182. Why is the Rhine most swollen in the summer ? 

183. How is Copenhagen situated ? 

184. Indicate correctly the pronunciation of the follow- 
ing : Ajaccio, Alsace, Avon, Azov, Basle, Baireuth, Bor- 
deaux, Bremen, Calais, Chamouny, Chelsea, Cherbourg, 
Edinburgh, Erzgebirge, St. Etienne, Genoa, Ghent, Got- 
tingen. Greenwich, Hague, Herzegovina, Hesse Cassel, 
Interlachen, Lofoden, Madrid, Lisle, Marmora, Milan, 
Nijni-Novgorod, Lago Maggiore, Jungfrau, Jena, Nice, 
Neufchatel, Pesth, Pisa, Thames, Trieste, Tyrol, Vos- 
ges. 

ASIA. 

185. Draw an outline map of Asia, using no construc- 
tion lines. 



46 GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

186. Describe the general features of the surface of Asia. 

187. Name and locate the islands which comprise the 
Empire of Japan. 

188. What two large islands south-east of Asia are 
crossed by the equator ? 

189. Name ten seas bordering on Asia. 

190. Locate Smyrna, and tell what its exports are. 

191. What island south of Hindostan ? 

192. By what waters is the peninsula of Hindostan 
embraced ? By what Arabia ? Corea ? Malay ? Kamt- 
chatka ? 

193. Locate Georgia, and tell for what it is noted. 

194. Give some account of the Empire of China, and 
state (1) its area ; (2) its population ; (3) its form of 
government ; (4) its religion ; (5) the chief industries of 
the people. 

195. For what purpose did the Chinese build the Great 
Wall? 

196. What can you say of its length ? 

197. What is especially marked about the climate of 
Asia ? 

198. What people are called the Celestials ? 

199. To what government is the Holy Land now sub- 
ject ? 

200. Has the cutting of the Suez Canal had any influ- 
ence upon Bombay ? 

201. Why was the Dead Sea so named ? 

202. Where is the most valuable pearl-fishery in the 
world ? 

203. Indicate correctly the pronunciation of the follow- 
ing : Afghanistan, Altai, Beloochistan, Cashmere, Him- 
alaya, Madras, Obi, Philippine, Tonquin, Yenisei, Yoko- 
hama. 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 47 



AFKICA. 

204. Draw an outline map of Africa, using no construc- 
tion-lines. 

205. Describe the general features of the surface of 
Africa. 

206. Locate the island of St. Helena, and state some 
important fact that makes the island noted. 

207. Is the greater part of Africa north or south of the 
equator ? 

208. Name the capes which form the north, east, south, 
and west extremities of Africa. 

209. Is Liberia north or south of the equator ? 

210. Draw an outline map of Africa, and locate upon the 
map the great and small circles that cross the continent. 

211. On what coast of Africa is Senegambia ? Zulu 
Land ? Natal ? 

212. What is the length of the Suez Canal ? 

213. What ports are connected by it ? 

214. What can you say of the passage down the Eed 
Sea? 

215. Who settled Cape Colony ? About what time ? 

216. Name the most important discovery made by 
Stanley. 

217. Name fifteen animals found in Africa. 

218. Name the Barbary States. What do they export ? 

219. Name three groups of islands west of Northern 
Africa. 

220. Why do travellers use camels in crossing the great 
desert. What is the camel often called ? 

221. Locate Mauritius. Why is it important ? 

222. For what is Cape Colony celebrated ? 
2^3. Where is the Nubian desert ? 

224. What can you say about rain in Egypt ? 

225. For what is th.e Nile remarkable ? 



48 GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

226. To what country does Sierra Leone belong? 

227. What can you say about Liberia? 

228. Account for the dryness of northern Africa. 

229. What is a mirage? 

230. Indicate correctly the pronunciation of the follow- 
ing: Aguilar; Agulhas; Cairo; Natal; Said; Fayal. 

OCEANICA. 

231. Name the divisions of Oceanica. 

232. In what hemisphere is Australia? 

233. What two arms of the sea indent the coast of 
Australia? 

234. Name the colonies of Australia. 

235. What can you say of the surface and rivers of 
Australia? 

236. What minerals abound in Australia? 

237. Locate the four largast cities of Australia. 

238. Name two of the Sandwich Islands. 

239. Which is the larger? 

240. Upon which is Honolulu situated? 

241. What islands nearly south of the Sandwich 
Islands? 

242. How does the latitude of the Sandwich Islands and 
the Greater Antilles compare? 

243. What is the boomerang? Where and how used? 

244. What is interesting about Pitcaim's Island? 

245. What can you say of Mauna Loa? 

246. Indicate correctly the pronunciation of the follow- 
ing: Celebes; Hawaii; Oahu; Papua. 



GEOGRAPHY FOR SECOND GRADE. 49 



jfor .Sccontr @fratre, 

1. Name the States which have no sea-coast. 

2. Which State has the least? 

3. On what part of the globe is the point having zero 
latitude and zero longitude? 

4. How can you determine by a map the position and 
direction of a water-shed? 

5. Locate the Canary Islands; The Madeira. The 
Cape de Verd Islands. 

6. Name the principal spices, and state where'they grow. 

7. In what general direction do two thirds of the moun- 
tain ranges of the globe extend and two thirds of the rivers 

flow? 

8 Name the four longest river-basins of the globe. 

9. A vessel was driven ashore in 23° north latitude and 
80° west longitude from Greenwich; upon what island 

was she? 

10. Name in their order of importance three of the 
leading empires. Three republics. 

11. Name in their order the six powers of the globe 
possessing the greatest territory. 

12. Can you mould each continent? 

13. What is the largest fresh-water lake of the globe? 

14. Which is the largest inland sea? 

15. Where are the richest silver-mines in the world? 

16. What sea or lake has its surface lower than the 
ocean? 

17. Draw a diagram to show the river system of each 

continent. 

18. Locate the Isthmus of Kraw. Name the isthmuses 



of the globe. 
19. Compare the level of the Dead Sea with that of the 



ocean. 



50 GEOGRAPHY FOR SECOND GRADE. 

20. Locate the five volcanic districts of the world. 

21. What are geysers? Locate the principal geyser 
regions of the world. 

22. Locate the magnetic pole. 

23. Locate the Sargasso Sea. What causes it? 

24. The mouth of what river of South America is west 
of the Cape of Good Hope? 

25. Locate the Great Barrier Eeef. 

26. What are dikes, and for what used? 

27. Where would you go for prunes? Dates? Oranges? 
Sulphur? Tin? Platinum? 

28. Name in order of size the three largest islands of 
the globe, not classing the continents as islands. 

29. What fertile country lies below the level of the sea? 

30. What is the longest mountain range in the world? 

31. What is meant by the Oriental countries? 

32. Distinguish between the Western Hemisphere and 
the Western Continent. 

33. In what part of the world is traffic still carried on 
by caravans? 

34. In what general direction do most peninsulas pro- 
ject? 

35. Of what use are rivers? Mountains? 

36. What is the highest northern latitude yet reached? 

37. Locate the Great Salt Desert. 

38. What rivers of the world have extensive delta for- 
mations? 

39. What is an inland sea? Give an example. 

40. What is a border sea? Give an example. 

41. What effect have marine currents upon climate? 

42. Name four great features of similarity between the 
eastern and western continents. 

43. Name the five largest cities of the world in order of 
population. 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 



ANSWERS TO GEOGRAPHY, THIRD GRADE. 

1. The Equator is a great circle passing around the earth midway 
between the poles ; the Tropics are two small circles passing around 
the earth, one 23^° north of the Equator called the Tropic of Cancer, 
the other 234° south called the Tropic of Capricorn ; the Polar Cir- 
cles are two parallels, one 23^° from the North Pole called the Arctic 
Circle, the other 23 V° from the South Pole called the Antarctic Circle. 

2. Latitude is distance north or south from the Equator. Longi 
tude is distance east or west from a chosen meridian called a prime 
meridian. 

3. The Torrid Zone is 47° wide; the Temperate Zones are each 43° 
wide; the Frigid Zones are each 47° wide. 

4. See any geography. 

5. Meridian Circles are great circles passing through the poles 
and cutting the Equator at right angles. A Meridian is half of a 
meridian circle, and extends from pole to pole. 

6. First, it has been circumnavigated ; second, the topmasts of 
vessels coming in from sea are seen first; third, sunrise takes place 
later or earlier as we go west or east ; fourth, the earth's shadow on 
the moon is always circular ; fifth, from any elevation the horizon is 
equally depressed upon all sides. 

7. Day and night. 

8. They enable us to locate places upon the earth's surface and to 
determine the position of ships at sea. 

9. The revolution of the earth around the sun, the earth's axis 
meanwhile pointing constantly in one direction. 

10. A continent is one of the six grand divisions of land; an ocean 
is one of the great divisions of water into which the sea is divided 
by the position of the continents ; a sea is a division of the ocean 
nearly enclosed by land ; the Sea is the whole body of salt water 
surrounding the continents. 

11. Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, and 
Australia ; Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Antarctic, and Arctic. 

12. 66£°. 

13. The cardinal points are north, east, south, and icest, the semi- 
cardinal are those midw T ay between these, namely, north-east, south- 
east, north-west, and south-west. 

14. A tropical circle. 

15. South. 

16. All that part within the Antarctic Circle. 



52 GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

17 The inclination of the earth's axis (23-D alternately deprives 
those portions of the earth within the Polar circles of the sun's rays 
a part of the year. 

18. On the Tropic of Cancer. 

19. They must have the same southern latitude that we have 
northern. 

20. New York being east of St. Louis has noon earlier. A tele- 
gram travels faster than the sun, and it would therefore reach St. 
Louis first. 

21. Owing to the oblate form of the earth, they differ slightly. 

22. Yes, they are shorter on the Tropics than on the Equator. 

23. 7,925.65 miles. The polar diameter is 26.48 miles shorter. 

24. From Greenwich, near London. 

25. Meridians. 

26. The meridian of 20° west longitude. 

27. Rotation is the motion on its axis; revolution, the motion in 
its orbit. 

28. One half of the earth is lighted by the sun at one time and the 
other half is in darkness ; the circle marking the boundary between 
these two is the circle of illumination. 

29. The Ecliptic is a great circle whose plane coincides with that 
of the earth's orbit, and therefore intersects the plane of the equator 
at an angle of 23 £°. It marks the apparent path of the vertical sun 
from tropic to tropic during the annual revolution of the earth. 

30. The Equinoxes arc those periods when the sun enters one of 
the equinoctial points, and the days and nights are equal. They oc- 
cur on March 20th and Sept. 22d. 

31. The Solstices are those points in the ecliptic when the sun is 
farthest from the equator north or south. The solstices occur on 
June 22d and Dec. 22d. 

32. 

33. The Pacific or Western Highland, which extends from the 
Arctic region to the Isthmus of Panama, and occupies nearly all of 
the western half of North America ; the Atlantic or Eastern High- 
land reaching from Labrador nearly to the Gulf of Mexico ; the A t 
lantic plain, a strip of low land between the Appalachian Mountains 
and the Atlantic Ocean ; and the Central Plain which lies between 
the two highland regions. 

34. Labrador and New Foundland. 

35. The climate of British Columbia is affected by the warm 
Japan current which passes from Alaska down the Pacific coast. 

36. It is the narrow part of Mexico between the Bay of Campeachy 
and the Gulf of Tehuantepec. 

37. The Provinces of Canada are Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns- 
wick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Manitoba, British Co- 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 53 

iumbia, the District of Keewatin, together with the Northwest Ter- 
ritories. Ottawa, on the Ottawa River — Montreal — Quebec. 

38. Anticosti Island'. 

39. South. 

40. Mt. St. Elias. 

41. Mt. St. Elias, Mt. Hood, Mt. St. Helens. 

42. The Mississippi and its branches, forming the most extensive 
system of navigable rivers in the world. 

43. Mexico contains about 10,000,000 inhabitants, descended from 
the early Spanish settlers. Its climate is hot, moist, and unheal thful 
on the coast : it is that of perpetual spring on the tablelands, and it is 
cold on the high mountains. Its surface is mostly a high plateau, 
having on its margin two mountain ranges extending from north- 
west to south-east. The principal products are silver, coffee, va- 
nilla, cochineal, mahogany. The government is a federal republic. 
The chief cities are Mexico, the capital, located in the southern cen- 
tral part ; Vera Cruz, on the Bay of Campeachy ; Acapulco, on the 
Pacific ; and Guadalaxara, in the western part, near the Santiago 
River. By steamer to Vera Cruz, thence by rail. But Texas, once 
a part, became independent in 1836, and California, New Mexico, 
and Arizona were ceded to the United States in 1848. 

44. The air over the warm water of the Gulf Stream becomes 
saturated with moisture. The wind bears the moisture across the 
cold surface of the Polar current, causing these fogs. 

45. About 100 miles north of the Island of St. Thomas, where it 
is more than 5 miles deep. 

46. Between the Japan and the Admiralty islands, where it is a 
little more than 5 miles deep. 

47. South of New Foundland. To France. 

48. In Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies. 

49. Icebergs are floating masses of ice. They break off from gla- 
ciers in the Arctic regions as the glaciers push into the sea. 

50. For its high tides, which often rise seventy feet at the head of 
the bay. 

51. The Governor-General. 

52. Hudson Bay, James Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Gulf of Mex- 
ico, Bay of Campeachy, Caribbean Sea, Bay of Honduras, and Gulf 
of California. 

53. The Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas. 

54. Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. 

55. Hayti and San Domingo — Port au Prince and San Domingo. 

56. Havana — Matanzas, in the northern part, on Florida Strait ; 
Santiago de Cuba, in the south-eastern part, on the Caribbean Sea. 

57. Kingston— Falmouth. 



54 GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

58. San Juan. 

59 Sugar, molasses, rum, tobacco, cotton, coffee, cacao, indigo, 
dye-stuffs, ginger, allspice, and fruits. 

60. (An-tccl.) (Ap-pa-lachi an.) (Man-i-to bah.) (Hii-lapa.) 
(Nu fund land.) (Nwases.) (CapeBrit'tn ) (Lab-ra-dor .) (Wii-ha ka.) 
(Ta-wan-ta-pek'.) (Maz-at-lan .) iHa'ti.) (Car ib-be'an.)(Kos ta-reek'a.) 
(Frob ish-er.) (Bel-U'.) (Bar-ba doz.) 

61. 45°. 

62. 49°. 

63. St. Mary River, Strait of Mackinaw, St, Clair River, Detroit 
River, Niagara River, St. Lawrence River. 

64. New Orleans. 

65. New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Brooklyn, St. Louis. 

66. It makes the climate milder. 

67. Richelieu River. 

68. For its beautiful scenery and the clearness of its waters. 

69. Pittsburg, in the western part of Pennsylvania, at the junc- 
ture of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers. 

70. New York. 

71. New York. 

72. Chicago. 

73. New Orleans. 

74. Me., N. H., Vt,, Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., 
Del., Md., Va., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Fla., Ala , Miss., La., 
Tex., O., Ind., Ill, Mich., Wis., Minn., Io., Mo., Ark., Ky.,Tenn., 
Neb., Kan., Col., Nev., Cal., Ore., Id., Mont., S. Dak., N. Dak 
Wash., Wy. 

75. In the south-western part of South Dakota. 

76. Long Island and Staten Island. 

77. Minnesota. 

78. In the Niagara River. 

' 79. South-east of Massachusetts. 
80. To Massachusetts. 81. Georgian Bay. 82. Saginaw Bay. 

83. Census of 1890, 62,622,750, exclusive of Ind. Ter., Alaska, 
and Indians on reservations. 

84. Milwaukee, eastern part of Wisconsin, on Lake Michigan; 
Chicago, north-eastern part of Illinois, on Lake Michigan; Detroit; 
eastern part of Michigan, on Detroit River; Cleveland, northern part 
of Ohio, on Lake Erie; Buffalo, western part of New York, on Lake 
Erie. 

85. For wheat, the Central States; cotton, Mississippi, Georgia, 
Alabama; corn, the Central States; cattle, the Central States; sugar, 
Louisiana; iron, Pennsjdvania and West Virginia; copper, Michigan- 
gold, California; silver, Nevada; fruit, Florida. 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 55 

86. Sponges, Key West, in the southern part of Florida; turpen- 
tine, Wilmington, in the southern part of North Carolina; tobacco, 
Richmond, in the eastern part of Virginia; wheat, Chicago, in the 
north eastern part of Illinois; ships, Portland, in the southern part 
of Maine. 

87. At Cambridge, Mass.; New Haven, Conn.; Ithaca, N. Y.; 
Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 

88. New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois. Texas, California, 
and Montana. California and Nevada. 

89. To the Gulf of St. Lawrence, by the Great Lakes and St. 
Lawrence River. To the Gulf of Mexico, by canal to Illinois River, 
thence by the Mississippi. 

90. It has extensive salmon, cod, and herring fisheries. Its seal- 
fishery is the most valuable in the world. 

91. The Gulf Stream is about 15° in summer and 3(T in winter, 
warmer than other parts of the ocean. This condition makes the 
air above the Gulf Stream warmer. 

92. Savannah; St. Mary's; Potomac. 

93. New Orleans; Boston; Brooklyn; New Haven; Buffalo; Bal- 
timore; Pittsburg; Detroit. 

94. Virginia, Maryland, New York, The Carolinas, Louisiana, 
Georgia. 

95. Each State is represented by a white star. 

96. It is a noted summer resort. 

97. In the western part of Maine. 

98. New York and Vermont. 

99. In the northern part of Michigan. 

100. There are 88 senators. 

101. Mt. Whitney, 14,887 ft. 

102. Texas. 

103. Columbus. 

104. In the western part of Texas and the eastern part of New 
Mexico. 

105. This*plain is so called from the stakes once set up to show the 
trail from Santa Fe to the Mississippi. 

106. It lies at the north west corner of Wyoming, and is a section 
nearly the size of Connecticut, set apart by Congress as a perpetual 
reservation for the benefit and instruction of mankind. It contains 
ten thousand boiling springs and geysers, many grand waterfalls, 
deep canons, beautiful lakes, and rugged mountain peaks. 

107. By census of 1890, 20 miles east of Columbus, Ind. 

108. In the St. Lawrence River, north of New York. 

109. The south-western islets of the Florida Keys. They are of 
coral formation, low, and generally barren. 

110. Gold and silver in the Pacific Highland; coal and iron in 
4 



56 GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

Pennsylvania and the Central States; copper in Michigan and New 
Mexico; lead in Missouri, Wisconsin, and Illinois. 

111. It is nearly equal to that of Europe. 

112. Nearly one eighth. 

113 It is a method adopted by the railways of United States and 
Canada for securing a uniform standard of time. The United States 
is divided into four sections, and at all places in the same section 
time is the same. The first section keeps Eastern time, which is that 
of the 75th meridian; the second section keeps Central time, or thai 
of the 90th meridian; the third section keeps Mountain time, or tbal 
of the 105th meridian; the fourth section keeps Pacific time, or tLut 
o: the 120th meridian. 

114. (Sent Aw'gus-teen.) Cairo. (Shi-en'.) Katah'din. (Locc 
An jel-ez.) (He'la.) I o-wa.. Kit-ta-tin'ny. New Or le-ans. (Per- 
mim-booko.) (Sa-been.) (San-de-a go.) (San Hwa-keen.) (San 
Ho-sa.) Soo St. Mary. (Tu-son.) (Wilks'bar rl.) (Wil la'met.) 
(Loo-i-ze-a'na.) (Yoo'tit.) fT6r reh-hot.) (San'til-fa.) Ar-kan sas. 
Hobo-ken. (Loo is-vil.) (Reding,) Yo-sem i-te. Huron. 

115. 

116. The surface of South America consists of the Andes region, 
extending through the entire western part; the Atlantic Highland 
of Brazil and Guiana; and a central plain comprising the Llanos, the 
Selvas, and the Pampas. 

117. The slope from the Andes toward the Pacific is very short, 
while the long slope of South America is toward the Atlantic. 

118. In the Pacific Ocean, west of Chili. 

119. It was the solitary residence of Alexander Selkirk, whose 
story is often associated with that of the hero of " Robinson Crusoe." 

120. Cape Gallinas, Cape St. Roque, Cape Horn, and Cape 
Blanco. 

121. Easterly. 

122. Brazil, Ecuador, United States of Colombia. 

123. In passing the Andes south of the equator the trade-winds 
from the East are deprived of their moisture, and hence cause on the 
Pacific side a long stretch of rainless coast. 

124. Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata. 

125. 

126. Zero latitude. 

127. 471 miles. 

128. Panama and Aspinwall. 

129. Rio de la Plata. 

130. Illampu. 

131. The river system of South America is the most extensive on 
the globe, and includes the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La Plata, 
with their branches. 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 57 

132. Brazil, United States of Colombia, Ecuador, Pacific Ocean, 
Galapagos Islands. Gilbert Islands, Spice Islands, Celebes, Borneo, 
Sumatra, Indian Ocean, Zanguebar, Congo State, Lower Guinea, 
Atlantic Ocean. 

133. The Pampas arc the plains of the La Plata in Argentine Re- 
public, and are covered with tall grass; the Selvas are the plains of 
the Amazon, and are covered with dense forests; the Llanos are 
the plains of the Orinoco, in the northern part of South America, and 
are treeless. 

134. In Colombia and Ecuador, on both slopes of the Andes, there 
are abundant rainfalls; but the western slope in Northern Chili is 
entirely rainless. 

135/ On the Great Central Plain which extends along the eastern 
base of the Andes there are heavy rainfalls, due to the tropical rain- 
belt and the trade winds which sweep from the Atlantic. About 
one half of the western coast is a dry desert, because in passing over 
the Andes south of the equator the trade-winds arc deprived of 
their moisture; but Patagonia receives a copious rainfall, caused by 
the counter trade- winds of the Pacific. 

136. The long rivers would flow into the Pacific. The narrow 
rainless district west of the Andes would stretch across the continent 
to the foot of the mountains. There would be a heavy rainfall on 
the supposed Atlantic slope, caused by the mountains precipitating 
the moisture of the easterly trade-winds. 

137. The marshes of the Amazon are the vast tracts that arc over- 
flowed by the periodical inundations of the river. 

138. Brazil. 

139. Because of the mixed population. Among the masses educa- 
tion is little diffused. In the republics, political revolutions have 
been very frequent, and means of interior communication are ex- 
tremely rude. 

140. From the cinchona tree. 

141. Spanish; Spanish; Portuguese; Spanish. 

142. Chili. 

143. Coffee, cotton, sugar, hides, dye-woods, India-rubber, and 
diamonds. Indigo, cocoa, sugar, coffee. Coffee, cocoa, and other 
tropical products. Hides and wool. 

144. Argen-tlne. (Ba e a.) Bo go-ta'. (Kl-en'.) (Gwl-a-keel.) 
(Eel-ya-ma'nee.) (LyaVnos.) (Mar a- kl' bo.) (Pii-ra'.) Pa-ra-na'. 
(Ta-pazhos.) (To kan-teens'.) Trin-tdad'. 

145. England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. 

146. 

147. Eastern Europe is a plain extending from the Arctic Ocean 
to the Caucasus Mountains and the Black Sea, and westward from 
the Ural Mountains to the Bay of Biscay. The White, the Cas- 
pian, the Black, and the North seas break into the borders of the 



58 GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

plain. The rivers of this plain are the longest in Europe ; the 
northern part contains many lakes. Highland Europe in the south- 
west is a network of mountain chains with enclosed valleys. The 
only large plateau is Spain. The Alps form the principal water- 
shed of Highland Europe. 

148. It is greater. 

149. The Rhine rises in the Bernese Alps in Switzerland, flows in 
a northwesterly direction through Germany and Holland, emptying 
into the North Sea. The Rhone rises in the Bernese Alps in Swit- 
zerland, flows westerly and southerly through eastern France, 
emptying into the Gulf of Lyons. 

150. The Golden Horn is the harbor of Constantinople. The 
wealth of the commerce of Byzantium (the site of which is now oc- 
cupied by Constantinople) procured for its harbor this name. 

151. The Rhine, Rhone, and Po. 

152. The Apennines. 

153. The Scandinavian, between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans 
and the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Bothnia, occupied by the Swedes 
and Norwegians. The Iberian, between the Atlantic Ocean and 
the Mediterranean Sea, occupied by the Spanish and Portuguese. 
Jutland, between the Baltic and the North seas, occupied by the 
Danes. Italy between the Mediterranean and the Adriatic seas, oc- 
cupied by the Italians. Greece, between the Mediterranean and 
iEgean seas, occupied by the Greeks. Crimea, between the Black 
Sea and the Sea of Azov, occupied by Russians. Lapland, between 
Arctic Ocean and the White Sea ; its inhabitants are Lapps. 

154. Coal, iron, cotton goods, engines, machinery, hardware, 
glassware, linen goods, thread. 

155. The Tiber. 

156. Majorca, east of Spain; Corsica and Sardinia, west of Italy; 
Sicily, south of Italy; Malta south of Sicily; Candia or Crete, south 
of Greece; and Cyprus, in the extreme eastern part of the Mediter- 
ranean. 

157. Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, Riga, and Dantzic. 

158. By Skager Rack and Cattegat channels. 

159. At Oxford, England. 

160. Spain, France, Italy, Turkey, Greece. 

161. France and Switze^and. 

162. The Maelstrom. 

163. Mont Cenis Tunnel leads from France into Italy. It is 
about 8 miles long, and a railroad passes through it. The tunnel is 
16 miles from Mont Cenis, 

164. By embankments called dykes. 

165. The Giant's Causeway is a platform of basaltic formation, 
projecting into the sea from the northern coast of Ireland. It re 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 



59 



dembles a pier; is about 700 feet long, 350 reet broad, aDd is 30 feet 
in height above the strand. 

166. They are not navigable. 

167. In the Irish Sea west of England. Manx. 

168. The countries bordering the eastern shore of the Mediterra- 
nean constitute the Levant. 

169. Rome. 

170. Hammerfest. 

171. A large mass of snow and ice which slides down the side of 
a mountain. 

172. Off the south-western coast of England, opposite Plymouth. 

173. Great Britain, Russia, Germany, France, and Austro-Hun- 
gary. The rulers of each are Queen Victoria, Czar Alexander III., 
Emperor William II., President Carnot, Emperor Franz Joseph. 

174. Norwegians-, Danes; Welsh; Finns; Lapps. 

175. The Czar. 

176. Rome is the most celebrated city in history, and is the resi- 
dence of the Pope, who is the head of the Roman Catholic Church. 
Every part of Rome contains magnificent ruins, ancient sculpture, 
and paintings. The splendor of its churches is unparalleled— the 
Church of St. Peter's being the finest building in the world. Venice 
is built upon 100 small islands, and canals take the place of streets. 
Vesuvius is a volcano situated near the Bay of Naples. Its erup- 
tion in the year 79 buried the city of Pompeii. Naples is the largest 
city of Italy. It is beautifully situated on the Bay of Naples, and 
is noted for the manufacture of silk. 

177. Glaciers. 

178. To Denmark. 

1 79. Etna, Vesuvius, Stromboli. 

1 30. In the north-western and northern parts. 

181. The warm south-west or return trade-winds bring with them 
a part of the heat they have acquired in the Torrid Zone; the warm 
waters of the Gulf Stream also assist in modifying the climate of 
Great Britain. 

182. Because the glaciers of the Alps melt more rapidly in sum- 
mer than in winter. 

183. In the eastern part of Denmark, on the Island of Zealand. 

184. (A-yat cho.) (Al-sass'.) (Eng.) (A'von.) French (A-von'.) 
(Azof.) (Bahl.) (Bl'ruth.) (Bor-do\) (Bra men.) (Kala.) 
(Sha-moo-ne'.) (Chel'se.) . (Sherburg.) (Ed in-bur-ruh.) (Erts-ga- 
beer'ga.) (Sent-et-e-en.) Gen'o-a. (Gent.) (Get ting-en.) (Grln'ij.) 
(Haig.) (HSrt-seh-go-vee'nii.) Hesse Cas'sel. (In'ter-lak-en.) Lof- 
i'o den. Mad -rid . (Leel ) MarmQ-raT Mil' an. (Nizh'nee.) 
Nov-go-rod'. (La go-mad jo'ra.) (Yoong'frow.) Jena. (Nees.) 
UNusn-a-tel'.) (Pest.) (Pee'sii.) (T6mz.) (Tre-6sf.) Tyr'ol. 
(Vozh.) 



6o GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 



185. 



186. The surface is divided into three parts, Lowland Asia. 
Highland Asia, and the southern peninsulas. Lowland Asia occu- 
pies the great plain of Siberia and Turkestan. Highland Asia in- 
cludes the vast region between Lowland Asia and the peninsulas, 
and extends from the plateau of Arabia to Kamtchatka. In High- 
land Asia are found the most elevated plateaus and the loftiest 
mountain chains upon the globe. 

187. Hondo, Yezo, Shikoku, Kiushiu, the Loo Choo, and the 
Kui ile islands. 

188. Sumatra and Borneo. 

189. Behriug, Okhotsk, Japan, Yellow, China, Arabian, Red, 
Mediterranean^ Black, Caspian. 

190. Smyrna is in the western part of Turkey, on the ^Egean Sea. 
its exports are figs and other dried fruits. 

191. Ceylon. 

192. By the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, and the Indian 
Ocean. By the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea, and the Red 
Sea. By the Japan and the Yellow Sea. By the China Sea, the 
Bay of Bengal, the Gulf of Siam, and the Strait of Malacca. By the 
Behring and the Okhotsk Seas. 

193. Georgia is north-east of Turkey. Its women are especially 
noted for their beauty. 

194. The territory of the Empire of China is larger than the whole 
of Europe. Its population is 400,000,000. Its government is an ab- 
solute and despotic monarchy ; its religion is Buddhism ; its leading 
industries are agriculture and manufactures. 

195. To keep the Mongol Tartars out of China. 

196. It is more than 1200 miles long. 

197. It is subject to great extremes of heat and cold. 

198. The Chinese. 

199. To the government of Turkey. 

200. The Suez Canal has greatly increased the commercial impor- 
tance of Bombay, making it rival Calcutta. 

201. The Dead Sea was so named because its waters are fatal to 
animal life. 

202. Oq Bahrein Island, near the Strait of Ormus. 

203. (Af-ganis-tan'.) (Al-tl.) Bel-loo -chis-tan'. (Kash-meer'J 
Him-a-laVya. Mad-ras'. (O'bB.) Philippine. (Ton-keen'.) (Yen- 
e-sa'e.) (Yo-ko-hah'ma.) 

204. 

205. Nearly all the surface consists of broad low plateaus ; the 
edges of the continent are partly bordered and its surface broken by 
short mountain ranges. 

206. It is in the Atlantic Ocean, west of Africa. Napoleon Bona- 
parte was banished to this island, where he died. 



GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 6 1 



5207. 


North. 








208. 


Bon, Guardafui, 


Agulhas, 


and Verde. 


209. 


North. 








210. 










211. 


The west coast. 


South-eastern. 


South-eastern. 


212. 


About 100 miles. 








213. 


Port Said and Suez. 







214. The passage down the Red Sea is intensely hot, particularly 
in the summer months Sometimes it is necessary to put the ship 
about and steer in an opposite direction to afford temporary relief 
from the heat. 

215. Cape Colony was first settled by the Dutch at Cape Town in 
1652. It was captured by the British in the early part of this cen- 
tury, to whom it was soon after formally ceded. 

216. His exploration of the whole course of the Congo River, 
hitherto unknown. 

217. The elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, camel, giraffe, 
chimpanzee, gorilla, mandrill, crocodiles, gnu, zebra, lion, pan- 
ther, leopard, ostrich, sacred ibis, horned viper, hyena, ante- 
lopes, buffalo. 

218. Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, and Barca. They export 
wool, goat-skins, leather, gum, wax, olive-oil, dates, and almonds. 

219. The Madeira, the Canary, and the Cape Verde islands. 

2:20. It is a beast of burden ; its milk is used for food ; and it is 
the only animal that can eat the coarse herbage of the desert, and 
pass many days without water. " The Ship of the Desert." 

221. Mauritius is east of Madagascar. It is a stopping-place for 
vessels crossing the Indian Ocean. 

222. Cape Colony is a British colony of considerable importance. 
Ostrich-farming is extensively carried on there. 

223. The Nubian desert is in the north-eastern part of Africa, in 
Egyptian territory. 

224. On the coast of the Mediterranean rain is frequent, but in 
other parts of Egypt it rarely falls. 

225. It overflows its banks from June to December. For three 
months the water rises slowly and then slowly subsides. As it sub- 
sides, the muddy water leaves a thin layer of fertilizing sediment over 
all the land, and thus annually renews the productiveness of the soil. 

226. To Great Britain. 

227. Liberia was originally founded by the United States for its 
free negroes and emancipated slaves. It was made an independent 
negro republic in 1848. 

228. The dry sandy soil is raised to an intense heat during the 
day, and there is little or no water to evaporate. The hot dry air 
ascends, but the winds which blow in upon the desert cannot deposit 



62 GEOGRAPHY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

any moisture ; for, instead of being cooled, they are heated and 
driven up in the ascending currents. 

229 A mirage is an optical illusion arising from certain condi- 
tions of the atmosphere. It causes remote objects to be seen double, 
or to appear as if suspended in the air. It is frequently seen in 
deserts, presenting the appearance of water. 

230. (A-gelar'.) (A-gool'yas.) Cairo. Na-taT. (Sa-eed'.) (Fl- 
awl.) 

OCEANICA. 

231. The Malay Archipelago, Australasia, Melanesia, and Poly- 
nesia. 

232. In the Eastern Hemisphere. 

233. Great Australian Bight and Gulf of Carpentaria. 

234. North Australia, South Australia, Western Australia, Alex- 
andra Land, Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria. 

235. Australia is two thirds as large as the United States ; the in- 
terior, mostly unexplored, is a low plateau, a considerable part of it 
being a desert. The rivers are few ; the most important being the 
Murray and its tributaries. 

236. Gold, copper, iron, and coal. 

237. Melbourne, in the southern part of Victoria ; Sydney, in the 
eastern part of New South Wales ; Adelaide, in the southern part of 
South Australia ; and Brisbane, in the eastern part of Queensland. 

238. Hawaii, Maui. 

239. Hawaii. 

240. Oahu. 

241. The Society Islands. 

242. They have the same latitude. 

243. The boomerang is an instrument used in war and the chase by 
the aborigines of Australia. It is about two feet long, made of hard 
wood, bent in the form of an obtuse angle ; is flat on one side and 
rounded on the other. It is thrown forward as if to hit some object, 
but after going forward it reverses its motion, and sweeps over the 
head of the thrower, striking the intended object behind him. 

244. Pitcairn's Island, two and one quarter miles long and one mile 
wide, is in the Pacific Ocean, in 25° south latitude and 130° west 
longitude. It is surrounded by cliffs, making it impossible to land 
except in two or three spots. The climate is healthy. Tropical 
fruits grow there, and the soil is fertile. Its inhabitants are descended 
from an English crew that mutinied, and Tahitian women whom 
they brought to the island. 

245. Mauna Loa, a volcano in one of the Sandwich Islands, has 
the largest crater in the world. 

246. (Sel'e-biz.) (Ha-wl'ee.) (Wahhoo.) (Pap'oo-^.) 



GEOGRAPHY EOR SECOND GRADE. 



63 



ANSWERS TO GEOGRAPHY, SECOND GRADE. 

I. Yt, Penn., W. Ya, Tenn, Ken., Ohio, Mich., Wis., Ind., 
111., Ark., Mo., Iowa, Minn., Neb., Kan., Col., Nev., Idaho, Mont 
S. Dak., X. Dak., Wash., Wy. 

3. New Hampshire. 

3. Where the prime meridian crosses the equator. 

4. By the position and direction of the mountains, and also by- 
finding the line of land from which rivers flow in opposite direc- 
tions. 

5. North-west of Africa. North o± the Canary Islands. West of 
Africa. 

6. Pepper, from Sumatra, Jav:i, Borneo, Singapore ; ginger, from 
Hindostan, West Indies : allspice, from West Indies, Mexico, and 
parts of South America ; cinnam :n, from Ceylon, Java ; cloves, 
nutmegs and mace, from the Moluccas. 

7. North and south. 

8. Amazon, Mississippi, Yenisei, and Nile. 

9. Cuba. 

10. Great Britain, Germany, Russia. United States, France, and 
Brazil. 

II. The British Empire, the Russian Empire, the Chinese Empire, 
United States, Brazil, and the Turkish Empire. 

12. 13. Lake Superior. 

14. Caspian Sea. 

15. In Nevada. 

16. The Caspian Sea. 

17. 

18. Between Indo-China and Malay Peninsula. Isthmus of Suez, 
Panama, Tehuantepec. 

19. The surface is over. 1200 feet below the level of the Mediter- 
ranean. 

20. The volcanoes of the Andes. Those of Central America, Mex- 
ico, and the Lesser Antilles. Those of the Rocky Mountains and 
Aleutian Islands. Those of Kamtchatka, the Kurile Islands, and 
Japan. Those of Sumatra, Java, and thence to New Guinea 

21. A geyser is a boiling spring whose waters burst out at inter- 
vals with great force. In the basin of the Upper Yellowstone, in 
Iceland, and in New Zealand. 

22. The magnetic pole is in latitude 70° in the western part of 
Boothia Island. 

23. The Sargasso Sea is in the Atlantic Ocean, near the Tropic of 



64 GEOGRAPHY FOR SECOND GRADE. 

Cancer. It is an immense field covering thousands of square miles, 
undisturbed by ocean currents and covered with sea-weed. 

24. The La Plata River. 

25. The Great Barrier Reef is north-east of Australia. 

26. A dike is an embankment built to keep the sea from over- 
flowing the land at high tide. 

27. To France and Turkey for prunes ; to the Barbary States for 
dates ; to Sicily for oranges and sulphur : to England for tin ; to 
Russia for the chief supply of platinum. 

28. Greenland, Borneo, and Madagascar. 

29. Holland. 

30. The Rocky and the Andes together form the longest mountain 
range in the world. 

31. Egypt and the southern countries of Asia, including China 
and Japan. 

32. The western hemisphere is that part of the globe between 20° 
west and 160° east longitude. The western continent is North 
America and South America. 

33. Across the southern part of Asia. 

34. Southerly. 

35. Rivers furnish an easy communication between all parts of a 
country, and are useful for ijainage. Mountains are the source of 
rivers ; they form natural boundaries and affect climate. 

36. About 83£°. 

37. It is in the northern part of Persi * 

38. The Mississippi, the Nile, Jan es, Niger, Danube, Volga, 
trrawaddy, Indus, Orinoco. 

39. An inland sea is one 'hat has no outlet, as the Caspian, Aral. 

40. A border sea is one that is connected with the ocean, as the 
Caribbean. 

41. The north-polar currents an, by the influence of the earth's 
rotation, thrown upon the eastern shores of the continents, thus 
reducing their temperature below that belonging to the latitudes, 
and the return currents carrying the warm water strike the western 
shores of the continents and raise their temperature above that be- 
longing to the latitudes. 

42. Each is invaded nearly midway by the ocean or great inland 
seas ; each of the grand divisions is more or less triangular in shape; 
the northern grand divisions of each are more deeply indented with 
gulfs, bays, and seas ; each of the northern grand divisions have 
many peninsulas, while the reverse is true of the southern grand 
divisions. 

43. London, Hankow, Paris, Canton, Berlin. The reports of 
population of Chinese cities are not to be relied on. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES—THIRD GRADE. 65 



CHAPTER III. 

EISTOEY OF TEE UNITED STATES, 

jFor erfjirtr «Kratre. 

ABORIGINAL PERIOD. 

1. Who were the Mound -builders? 

2. Mako a diagram of the shapes of the mounds. 

3. What arts did the Mound-builders understand? 

4. Where has one of their mines been discovered? 
Describe it. 

PERIOD OP VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 

5. Give a short sketch of the life of Columbus. 

6. Give an account of his discovery of America. 

7. How many voyages did he make after the first? 

8. Give the result of each voyage. 

9. Who were the Cabots, and what discoveries did they 
make? 

10. Give an account of Vespucci's voyage. 

11. Who was De Leon, and how is his name connected 
with the new world? 

12. What discoveries did Verrazzani make? 

13. When and by whom was St. Augustine founded? 

14. What do you know of the Round Tower at New- 
port, E. I. ? 

15. Tell what you can of Dighton Eock. 

16. Why was the new world named after Americus 
Vespucius? 



66 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 
PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT. 

17. Give an account of Cartier's attempt to colonize 
Canada. 

18. Write a description of De Soto and his expedition. 

19. Trace upon a map of the United States the route 
traversed by De So«o and his men. 

20. What account can you give of Coligny and the 
Huguenots? 

21. Where did Sir Humphrey Gilbert attempt to plant 
a colony? 

22. What resulted from Sir Walter Raleigh's attempts 
to plant a colony? 

23. Were there any other attempts to plant colonies? 

24. What was the object of the London Company? 
Of the Plymouth Company? 

25. Give an account of the settlement of Jamestown. 

26. Write a short account of the exploits of Captain 
John Smith. 

27. Give briefly the story of Pocahontas's life. 

28. Relate the history of Hudson and his voyages. 

29. When, by whom, and where was New York set- 
tled? 

30. Give an account of the Pilgrims, their wanderings, 
and settlement in America. 

31. What can you say of the introduction of slavery 
into the colonies? 

32. Treat these topics: 

(a) Settlement of the Colony of Boston and Massa- 
chusetts Bay. 

(b) Settlement of Connecticut, 

(c) Settlement of Maryland. 

(d) Roger Williams and Rhode Island. 

(e) Gorges and Mason and their grant of land. 

(/) William Penn and the founding of Pennsylvania. 
(g) The founding of New Jersey. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 67 

33. Give an account of the Pequod war. 

34. Give a summary of the founding and settlement of 
Delaware. Of North Carolina. Of South Carolina. Of 
Georgia. 

35. What inducements led Europeans to go to America? 

36. What was the " starving time" in Virginia? 

37. Tell of the condition of the settlers of Plymouth 
during their first winter. 

38. What nations claimed America by right of dis- 
covery? 

39. What names were given to the parts each claimed? 

40. Locate these parts. 

41. In what way did the settlers of Virginia obtain 
wives? 

42. What form of religion first prevailed in the colony 
of Maryland? 

43. Who founded Georgia? 

PERIOD OF COLONIAL GROWTH. 

44. Who was Anne Hutchinson, and what were her 
views? 

45. Give an account of the persecution of the Quakers 
in Massachusetts. 

46. Write a summary of King Philip's War. 

47. Give the story of the Charter Oak. 

48. Name the three wars that occurred prior to the 
French and Indian War. 

49. Write an account of that strange delusion, the 
Salem Witchcraft. 

50. What were the Patroons of the colony of New 
York? 

51. Can you name the Dutch governors of New York? 

52. Give an account of the easy conquest of New York 
by the English. 

53. Can you tell when the following were founded, and 



63 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

what causes led to their founding: Harvard College? 
William and Mary College? Yale College? Princeton 
College? Locate each. 

54. Give an account of the explorations of Father Hen- 
nepin,, Marquette, and La Salle. 

55. What languages were spoken in New York in the 
latter part of the seventeenth century? 

56. Describe the houses, dress of the people, and the 
church services of early New England. 

THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 

57. State fully the causes of the French and Indian 
War. 

58. Give an account of Washington's mission to St. 
Pierre, the French commander. 

59. Draw a line upon the map connecting the French 
forts. 

60. Give an account of Washington's expedition 
against the French. 

61. What four expeditions moved against the French 
in 1755? 

62. What was the result of each expedition? 

63. Write fully an account of Braddock's ill-fated ex- 
pedition against Fort Du Quesne. 

64. Name the defeats which make the years 1756 and 
1757 years of disaster. 

65. Give an account of Wolfe's campaign against Que- 
bec. 

66. When was the treaty of peace signed, and what 
were its terms? 

67. What commanders were killed at Quebec? 

THE REVOLUTION. 

68. State the causes that led to the American Revolu- 
tion. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 



6 9 



69. What action did the Continental Congress of 1774 
take? 

70. Give an account and state the effects of the skir- 
mishes of Lexington and Concord. Locate carefully 
these places upon the map. 

71. Tell about the capture of Ticonderoga. 

72. What action was taken by the Second Continental 
Congress of 1775? 

73. Draw a map of the Charlestown peninsula, show- 
ing tne redoubt of the Americans and the landing-place 
of the British, and give an account of the battle of Bun- 
ker Hill. 

74. When did Washing' on take command of the army? 

75. Give an account of the unsuccessful expedition 
against Canada. 

76. What was the Boston Massacre? 

77. Relate the story of the Spilling of the Tea. 

78. What were the minute-men? 

1776. 

79. What were Washington's plans in forcing the Brit- 
ish to evacuate Boston? 

80. State the movements of Clinton, Lee, and Wash- 
ington after the evacuation of Boston. 

81. Why is the 4th of July, 1776, memorable? 

82. Who were the Hessians? 

83. Draw a plan and give an account of the battle of 
Long Island. 

84. Describe the prisons and prison-ships in which the 
captured Americans were confined. 

85. Trace upon the map Washington's movements 
from the battle of Long Island to the capture of the Hes- 
sians at Trenton, stating briefly the principal events. 



70 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

1777. 

86. What can you say about the agents of Congress in 
France ? 

87. Give an account of the battle of Princeton. 

88. Give an account of the battle of Brandywine. 

89. Describe Burgoyne's campaign, and state its results. 

90. Give an account of the encampment of the Ameri- 
can army during the winter of 1777 and 1778. Locate 
the spot on the map. 

91. Where did Congress assemble while the British oc- 
cupied Philadelphia? 

1778. 

92. With what nation was a treaty of alliance con- 
cluded? 

93. In what way did England seek to negotiate with 
the colonies early in this year? 

94. Why were the negotiations refused? 

95. Give an account of the evacution of Philadelphia 
and the battle of Monmouth. 

96. What heroic task was performed by a woman at 
the battle of Monmouth? 

1779. 

97. Why were troops sent to the South in this year? 

98. Describe the capture of Stony Point. 

99. Name the engagements fought in the South during 
this year. 

100. Who was John Paul Jones? 

1780. 

101. What was the design of the British in seizing 
Charleston? 

102. Name the principal events which occurred in the 
South during this year. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES—THIRD GRADE, yl 

103. Who were Marion and his men? 

104. Write an account of Arnold's treason. 

105. What did the French send this year? 

1781-3. 

106. Where was the battle of Cowpens fought, and who 
were victorious? 

107. Describe the siege of Yorktown. 

108. Tell of the military operations in the South be- 
fore the surrender of Cornwallis. 

109. Treat these topics: The Discontent in the Army; 
The Evacuation of New York; The terms of the Treaty 
of Peace; Washington resigning his commission. 

110. In what condition were the colonies when the 
Revolutionary army disbanded? 

111. What difficulties were experienced under "The 
Articles of Confederation"? 

112. When was the present constitution adopted? 

113. Name the thirteen colonies engaged in the Rev- 
olution. 

PERIOD OF NATIONAL GROWTH. 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTKATION. 

114. Give a brief account of the inauguration of Wash- 
ington and the organization of the new government. 

115. Name the two political parties at this time. 

116. State briefly the facts about the Whiskey Insur- 
rection. , 

ADAMSES ADMLKTISTKATION. 

117. What troubles occurred with France in this ad- 
ministration? 

118. What were the Alien and Sedition Laws? 

119. Who said, "Millions for defence, not a cent for 
tribute/' and why did he say it? 



72 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

jefferson's administration. 

120. Give an account of the Louisiana purchase. 

121. Bound the territory. 

122. Write an account of Hamilton and Burr, and 
Burr's proposed Western Empire. 

123. What was the Embargo? 

• 124. Describe Fulton's steamboat. 

125. What explorations were made by the Lewis and 
Clark's expedition? 

MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. THE WAR OF 1812. 

126. What were the causes of the War of 1812? 

127. Name the battles of this war fought along the 
Canadian frontier, including the naval battles upon the 
Lakes. 

128. Name the most important naval engagements. 

129. What stirring events occurred at and near Wash- 
ington? 

130. What Indian uprisings occurred, and who quelled 
them? 

131. Give an account of the Hartford Convention. 

132. Describe the battle of New Orleans. 

133. When was the treaty of peace signed, and what 
were its terms? 

134. What is of interest regarding the buccaneers of 
the Gulf of Mexico? 

MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 

135. What Indian disturbances arose in the South in 
Monroe's administration? 

136. Treat the topic "The Missouri Compromise." 

137. What were the two great parties at this time? 

138. Define the Monroe Doctrine. 

139. Describe La Fayette's visit to the United States, 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. y$ 



,' 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION. 

140. Describe the tariff enacted in 1828. 

141. What great canal was finished in 1825? 

142. Where was the first railroad built and operated? 

143. What two Presidents died on the 4th of July o| 
the nation's semi-centennial? 

jackson's administration. 

144. What practice was inaugurated by Jackson when 
he became President? 

145c What attitude did Jackson assume toward the 
Bank of the United States? 

146. What was the Seminole War? 

147. What was the "surplus revenue"? 



148. What were the causes of the Financial Crisis? 

149. What can you tell of the government and the 
banks ? 

150. What was the Hard Cider Campaign? 

151. What difference of views was there between the 
Whigs and the Democrats? 

HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION. 

152. How long was President Harrison in office? 

153. What bill was vetoed by Tyler against the policy 
of the party which elected him? 

154. Give a short account of the difficulties in Ehode 
Island generally known as the Dorr rebellion. 

155. What was settled by the Ashburton treaty? 

156. Describe the annexation of Texas. 

157. What were John C. Calhoun's reasons for the an- 
nexation? 

158. Give an account of the first telegraph. 



74 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

polk's administration. 

159. State the causes which led to the Mexican "War. 

160. What was the Wilmot Proviso? 

161. How were the rival claims of the United States 
and Great Britain to Oregon settled? 

162. Give an account of the Mormon difficulty. 

163. Name five of the principal battles of the Mexican 
War, and state what is remarkable about all the battles of 
this war. 

164. Name the territory ceded by treaty with Mexico to 
the United States. 

165. What was the "gold fever"? 

166. Who were the most noted commanders on both 
sides in the Mexican War? 

TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION. 

167. What was the Omnibus Bill? 

168. What was the Fugitive Slave Law which Fill- 
more's administration supported? 

169. Can you tell what great work, written by a lady 
of the North, was published shortly after the signing of 
the Fugitive Slave Law? 

170. Tell of Perry's expedition to Japan, and what it 
accomplished. 

PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 

171. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, and how di 
the measure affect the people of Kansas? 

172. Who were the Border Euffians? 

173. Describe the Gadsden Purchase. 

174. Name the territory so acquired. 

175. What was the Know-Nothing party? 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 7$ 



176. Give an outline of the Dred Scott Decision. 

177. What was John Brown's raid? 

178. What noted American writer died during Bucha- 
nan's administration? 

179. Who was Dr. Kane? 

180. Who were the candidates for the Presidency in 
1860? 

181. State the causes that led to the Civil War. 

182. What State first passed the ordinance of seces- 
sion? 

183. Name the other States that followed. 

184. What position did the administration take with 
reference to the seizure of the forts and arsenals? 

Lincoln's ad^tinicteation. the ciyil wae. 

185. Describe the bombardment of Fort Sumter. 

186. What States seced-d m 1861? 

187. Treat these topics: Ti^e attack upon the Massa- 
chusetts troops in Laltinure; The battle of Bull Run; 
The battle of Ball's Bk.ff, The state of affairs in Missouri. 

188. Give an account of the capture of Mason and 
Slidell. 

189. What was the attitude of England toward the 
United States? 

1862. 

190. Draw a map of the scene of operations in the 
Southwest, and, beginning with Belmont, describe the 
engagements in this section to the capture of Vicksburg.* 

* Such a question covers more than one year, but such a plan of 
study will give a clear, connected, and durable impression of tlie 
main movements of the war. Of course the time should be kept 
firmly in mind, so that the student may be able to place accurately 
the bearing of any contemporary event 



76 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

191. Describe the engagement between the Monitor 
and the Merrimac. 

192. Give and trace meantime upon the map an out- 
line of the movements and engagements of the Army of 
the Potomac from their setting out from Washington, 
March, 1862, to capture Kichmond, to their being driven 
toward the fortifications around Washington in Septem- 
ber, 1862. 

193. Give an account of Lee's invasion of Maryland, 
and the battles resulting therefrom. 

194. Describe the guerrilla warfare in Kentucky in 
1862. 

195. Give an account of the disheartening battle of 
Fredericksburg in December of 1862. 

196. Draw a picture of the Confederate flag. 

1863. 

197. Describe the capture of Vicksburg. 

198. When was the Emancipation Proclamation issued, 
and what were its terms? 

199. Give and trace meantime upon the map an account 
of the battle of Chancellorsville, Lee's second invasion of 
Maryland, and the battle of Gettysburg. 

200. How did Admiral Dupont try to take Charleston? 

201. Draw a map of Charleston harbor, locating its 
forts. 

202. Give an account of the movements in Tennessee 
and the battle of Chickamauga. 

203. Describe the battle of Lookout Mountain. 

204. What were Morgan's raids? 

205. Trace Sherman's route and engagements from his 
leaving Vicksburg in February, 1864, to his reaching the 
sea. 

206. From here trace him north, and show how he co- 
operated with General Grant. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 77 

207. Describe the Red River Expedition. 

208. Describe the capture of Mobile. 

209. Draw a map and, marking the positions, give an 
account of General Grant's movements and the surren- 
der of General Lee. 

210. Describe Sheridan's movements in the Shenandoah 
Valley. 

211. Give a short account of the Alabama and other 
privateers. 

212. Who were the candidates for the Presidency in 
18G4? Who was elected? 

213. Give an account of the assassination of Lincoln. 

214. Can you give the debt of the United States at the 
close of the war? 



215. How was slavery abolished in the United States? 

216. What was the Amnesty Proclamation? 

217. What great territory was purchased in 1867, and 
what price was paid for it? 

218. State carefully the attitude of President Johnson 
and of Congress with reference to public policy. 

219. Why was the President impeached? 

220. What was secured by the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment ? 

GEANT'S ADMIiaSTKATION. 

221. Tell about the Atlantic cable and the Union 
Pacific Railroad. 

222. What was secured by the Fifteenth Amendment? 

223. State what the Alabama Claims were. 

224. What noted man ran against Grant for the Presi- 
dency in 1872? 

225. Which is the "Centennial State"? 



;8 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

226. Describe the Centennial Exhibition, and state the 
effect it had upon American industry. 

227. What was the war with the Sioux? 

228. Who were the candidates of the Republican and 
Democratic parties in the campaign of 1876? 

229. What dispute arose about the election? 

230. Did the Constitution make any provision for what 
had happened? 

231. State carefully how the dispute was settled. 

hayes's administration. 

232. Who was Secretary of State under Hayes? 

233. What measures of conciliation did President 
Hayes adopt toward the South? 

234. On what grounds did the President defend this 
against the criticism in some parts of the country? 

235. Who were the Republican and the Democratic 
candidates for the Presidency in 1880? 

GARFIELD AND ARTHUR^ ADMINISTRATION. 

236. Write a short sketch of President Garfield's life. 

237. Who was his Secretary of State? 

238. Give an account of the assassination of President 
Garfield, and the sympathy shown by the people of the 
Old World. 

239. What was the population of the United States in 
1880? 

240. Who were the candidates of the Eepublican and 
the Democratic parties in the national election of 1884? 

241. What was characteristic of the campaign? 

242. What is meant by Civil Service Reform? 

243. Who were elected President and Vice-President? 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. J§ 



244. Whom did President Cleveland select for Secretary 
of State ? 

245. What noted man died during the first year of this 
administration ? Give a short sketch of his career. 

246. What was the most marked feature of his funeral ? 

247. What other commander died during this year ? 

248. State the important events of Cleveland's adminis- 
tration. 

249. What was the chief political issue in the campaign 
of 1888, and who were elected ? 



HARRISONS ADMINISTRATION. 

250. Whom did Harrison appoint his Secretary of State? 

251. What was the Pan-American Congress and its ob- 
ject ? 

252. Where is Oklahoma and when opened? 

253. What great disaster occurred in 1889 ? 

254. Name the states admitted during this administra- 
tion, and state which one allowed women to vote and hold 
office. 

255. What noted statesman died in the latter part of 
Harrison's term ? 

256. What was the principal issue in the campaign of 
1892, who were the candidates on either side, and who were 
elected ? 

257. What new party polled a large vote in the West? 
State briefly its principles. 



80 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 

258. Why was an extra session of Congress called in 
August, 1893, and with what results ? 

259. What was the Columbian Fair? How did it com- 
pare with previous "World's Fairs ? 

260. Give an account of the industrial depression and 
of the Wilson Bill. 

261. Give an account of our relations with the Hawaiian 
Islands during this administration. 

262. What was the Venezuelan boundary dispute ? 

263. Give a short account of the election of 1896. 



m'kinley's administration. 

264. What was the first important act of Mr. McKinley's 
administration ? 

265. What effect followed the enactment of the Dingley 
tariff law ? 

SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 

266. Give an account of the condition of affairs in Cuba 
just before the Spanish-American War, and state why 
President McKinley was obliged to deal with them. 

267. Give an account of the destruction of the Maine, 
and state what effects it had upon the relations between 
the government of Spain and that of the United States. 

268. When was war declared, and on what grounds ? 

269. Give an account of the first engagement of the war. 

270. Give an account of the invasion of Cuba by the 
United States army, and tell how the army was assisted by 
the naval forces. 

271. Give an account of the gallant exploit of Lieuten- 
ant Hobson, stating what he had in view. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 8 1 

272. Give an account of the great naval battle off Santi- 
ago. 

273. When was Hawaii annexed to the United States, 
and what condition of affairs brought this about ? 

27-4- Give an account of the expedition sent to the 
Philippine Islands to co-operate with Admiral Dewey. 

275. Give an account of the invasion of Porto Rico. 

276. When did Spain agree to the terms of the protocol, 
and what were those terms ? 

277. What battle was fought after the signing of the 
protocol, and with what results ? 



jFor Second Ckratre* 

ABORIGINAL PERIOD. 

1. Name the great Indian families that once occupied 
the present territory of the United States, and tell in what 
part of the country each family was found. 

2. To what family did each of the following tribes or 
nations belong: Mohegans ? Creeks and Seminoles? The 
Powhatan Confederacy ? The Sacs and Foxes ? The Sioux ? 
The Mohawks? 

3. Give an account of the religion, government, and 
habits of life of the Indian. 

4. What can you say of the mammoth and the masto- 
don? 

5. Who are the Pueblo Indians, and for what noted ? 

6. Name two very ingenious Indian inventions. 

PERIOD OP VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 

7. Name the four Icelandic discoverers of America, and 
give an account of their supposed voyages. 

8. What part of the country did they name Vineland ? 



82 HISTORY GE UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

9. When and where was the first colony planted, who 
was governor, and what great discovery did he make ? 

10. What account can you give of Cortez's conquest of 
Mexico ? 

11. Give an account of Pizarro's conquest of Peru. 

12. What was accomplished by Sir Francis Drake during 
these years of discovery ? 

13. Can you give the Spanish, the Indian, and the Eng- 
lish name of the island where Columbus first landed, and 
point it out on the map ? 

14. How many times has Columbus been buried ? Where 
does his body now rest ? 

PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT. 

15. Give an account of Champlain's explorations and his 
zeal in behalf of the Jesuit missionaries. 

16. What was the House of Burgesses ? 

17. Where was the first white child of English parents 
born in America ? 

18. What was the character of the first colonists at 
Jamestown ? 

19. What settlers of Massachusetts were Pilgrims and 
what Puritans ? 

20. How is the name of " The Speedwell " connected 
with the settlement of the Pilgrims? 

21. What was the Dutch West India Company ? 

22. To what was the name Ehode Island and Providence 
Plantations given ? 

23. How is George Fox, the Quaker, connected with the 
settlement of Pennsylvania ? 

24. Where was Acadia? 

25. When did the first English women come to America ? 

26. What was the lost colony of America ? 

27. From what did the word " Yankee " come ? 

28. Who was the apostle to the Indians ? 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— SECOND GRADE. 83 

29. What noted explorer, with his son and six com- 
panions, was set adrift in Hudson Bay to perish? 

30. What did Canonicus send to Governor Bradford to 
denote defiance, and how did the Governor answer it? 

31. Can you give the anecdote of the resistance to Gov- 
ernor Fletcher at Hartford by the Connecticut people? 

32. What child was born on board " The Mayflower"? 

33. What price was paid for Manhattan Island? 

34. Whence came the name " The Jerseys"? 

35. Tell why Virginia is often called " The Old Domin- 
ion." 

36. Who were the Moravians? 

37. Tell what you can about the " Walking Purchase"? 

38. Where was De Soto buried? 

PERIOD OF COLONIAL GROWTH. 

39. What was Bacon's rebellion? 

40. What was the pine-tree money? 

41. Why is Sir Edmond Andros noted in Colonial his- 
tory? 

42. Treat briefly these topics: King William's war — 
Queen Anne's war — King George's war. 

43. Where did the Dutch Colony establish forts? 

44. What was accomplished by Stuyvesant and his ex- 
pedition of six hundred men against the Swedes? 

45. Why did he make the expedition? 

46. What was wampum, and for what used? 

47. Who were the Five Nations? Who the Six Na- 
tions? 

48. WTio was Poor Richard? 

49. Describe a block-house. 

50. Who are meant by " William the Testy" and 
" Headstrong Peter"? 



S4 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES—SECOND GRADE. 
THE FRENCH AND INDIAN "WAR. 

ox. What was the Ohio Company? 

52. Locate Louisburg, Ticonderoga, and Fort Du 
Quesne. 

53. Which of these were captured in 1758? 

54. What were the principal events of 1760? 

55. What was the conspiracy of Pontiac? 

56. What can you write about the removal of the Aca- 
dians? 

57. Who shot Braddock? 

58. What territory did England acquire as the result 
of this war? 

59. Eelate briefly the story of Daniel Boone's life. 

60. What became of Pontiac? 

THE REVOLUTION. 

61. What were the Writs of Assistance? 

62. In what year was the Stamp Act passed? How 
soon was it repealed? 

63. What color were the stamjos, and to what jind' of 
papers were they to be attached? 

64. Can you tell what value of stamp had to be attached 
to the diploma of one graduating from college at that time: 

65. Where was the Cradle of Liberty? 

66. Can you quote the famous words of Patrick Henry's 
speech against the Stamp Act? 

67. What is meant by the Boston Port Bill? 

68. Can you name in order of size the three largest 
cities of the colonies at the outbreak of the Eevolution? 

69. Who were the Tories of the Revolution? 

70. What general fell at Bunker Hill? 

71. Draw a picture of the Union flag which Washing- 
ton unfurled over camp, January 1, 1776. Tell what 
represented by the different parts of the flag. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— SECOND GRADE. 85 

7^. What was the " Continental money" issued at this 
time? 

73. By whom was the Declaration of Independence 
written? 

74. Who criticised it after it was written?* 
75. How was it received by the people? 

76. Of what advantage was the French and Indian War 
to the colonies, when we think of their struggle for lib- 
erty in the Revolution? 

77. How was the Union flag changed during the year 
1777? 

78. Write a brief account of the marauding expedition 
of Governor Tryon. 

79. What daring exploits were made by Col. Meigs 
and by Col. Barton? 

80. Describe the Massacre of Wyoming. 

81. Who was Mad Anthony, and why so called? 

82. Can you name the captors of Major Andre, and tell 
how they were rewarded? \ 

83. What were the privateers? 

84. Name five noted statesmen of the Revolutionary 
period. 

85. What famous foreigners assisted the Americans in 
the Revolution? 

86. What was the population of the colonies at the 
close of the Revolution? 

87. Which campaign of the Revolution virtually de- 
cided the question of American independence? 

88. What did England pay a head for the Hessians? 

* No student of American history should pass this period without 
reading thoroughly the Declaration of Independence. 

f Compare the story of Nathan Hale's capture and execution with 
that of Andre's. 



86 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— SECOND GRADE. 



PERIOD OF NATIONAL GROWTH. 

89. What was the indebtedness of the United States at 
the beginning of Washington's administration? 

90. What States did not vote for Washington for Presi- 
dent, and why? 

91. What difference of views was there between the 
Federalists and the Democrats? 

92. Where was the seat of government when Washing- 
ton was inaugurated? 

93. Describe the manners, dress, and customs of Wash- 
ington's day. 

94. What great statesman died during Washington's 
administration? 

95. What was the Right of Search, and by whom was 
it claimed? 

96. Describe the doings of the Algerine pirates. 

97. In what battle and by what commander were the 
words " Don't give up the ship" used? 

98. What general fought at Lundy's Lane that was 
afterwards a commander in the Mexican war and in the 
Civil War? 

99. What battle was fought after the treaty of peace 
was signed? 

100. Who was the hero of Lake Erie, and what were 
his famous words? 

101. What is meant by the era of good feeling? 

102. How were these States formed, and why so named : 
Indiana? Mississippi? Illinois? Alabama? Missouri ? 
Maine? 

103. To what does this statement allude : " Webster's 
reply to Hayne?" 

104. What political party came into existence in oppo- 
sition to Jackson's administration? 



HIS10RY OF UNITED STATES— SECOND GRADE. 



87 



105. What was Jackson's principle of action with for- 
eign governments? 

106. Write a short account of Gen. Lopez and the Cuban 
filibusters? 

107. Describe the formation of the government of the 
Confederate States of America. 

THE CIVIL WAE. 

108. Write a short sketch of Mr. Lincoln's life pre- 
vious to his becoming President. 

109. Who was Lincoln's Secretary of State? 

110. How did Col. Elmer E. Ellsworth meet his death? 

111. What became of the vessels Monitor and Merri- 
irnac? 

112. Why was the new State of West Virginia erected 
in June of 1863? 

113. Give an account of the riot in New York City. 

114. Describe the capture of Jefferson Davis. What 
was done with him? 

115. Give a short account of Maximilian, and the de- 
mand upon France made by the United States. 

116. What was Black Friday? 

117. Give an account of the Chicago fire. 

GENEKAL. 

118. Name the Presidents in order and give the years 
in which the administration of each began and ended. 

119. What Presidents died in office? 

120. Name the Vice-Presidents that became Presi- 
dents. 

121. Name a father and son who were Presidents? 

122. Who was nominated for President three times 
and elected twice to office? 

123. Who was President two terms and refused to be 
nominated for a third term? 



88 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— SECOND GRADE. 

124. Name the accessions of territory made by the 
United States, and state the price paid for each. 

125. What was accomplished by the late Civil War? 

126. What was the first method adopted by the United 
States for raising revenue? 

127. What was the government of the American Colo= 
nies prior to 1775? 

128. Name four great American statesmen, four authors, 
four orators, four of its most noted military commanderSc 

129. When did the United States first coin money? 

130. What was the form of the government from 177G 
to 1789, and why was a new Constitution devised? 

131. In what arts has the progress of the United States 
been most rapid and reliable? 

132. Name the Chief Justices of the United States. 

133. Can you tell anything about these famous Indians: 
Osceola? Tecumseh? Black Hawk? Red Jacket? The 
Prophet? Powhatan? 

134. What States were formed out of the Northwest 
Territory? Out of the Southwest Territory? 

135. What was the first State admitted into the Union. 

136. What money was used by the United States before 
it struck its own coins? 

137. How great has the emigration to the United 
States during the present century been, and what are 
some of its effects? 



nsAjLQJU 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE, gi 



ANSWERS TO HISTORY, THIRD GRADE. 

1. A race of men so called because of the mounds of earth they 
built, 

2. (Answers left blank are of such nature that the student 

should gain them without help.) 

3. The construction of earthworks, the making of pottery, tools 
and other implements and ornaments. 

4. Near Lake Superior. In the mine there is a mass of copper 
midway between the bottom and the top and supported on wooden 
logs. Their mining tools were found lying around as if the mine 
had just been left. 

5. He was born in Genoa, about 1435. At ten years of age he 
studied navigation, and at fourteen went to sea. As he grew to 
manhood he "became convinced of the rotundity of the earth and the 
necessity of a continent in the Atlantic, to balance the Eastern 
Hemisphere. He married the daughter of an eminent navigator 
and became possessed of valuable nautical papers. He was very 
religious, and believed that there were people beyond the Atlantic to 
whom he should carry the Gospel. He first laid his plans before his 
own countrymen, who refused them; then he tried King John of 
Portugal. While awaiting a decision his wife died, and then he left 
Portugal and went to Isabella, Queen of Spain. He obtained a per- 
sonal interview with the Queen, who promised to aid him. 

6. With a fleet of three vessels Columbus left Palos on Aug. 3, 
1492, and landing, October 12th, on the Island of San Salvador, set 
up a cross, and took possession of the country in the name of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella. From there he sailed south and discovered 
Cuba. He returned to Spain in March, 1493. 

7. Three. 

8. The second time he discovered Jamaica and Porto Rico, and 
founded a colony in Hayti. The third time he sailed to South 
America and discovered the mouth of the Orinoco, On his fourth 
voyage he reached the coast of North America, but met with many 
hardships, and died soon after his return to Spain. 

9. John and Sebastian Cabot, father and son, were natives of 
Bristol, England. Young Cabot discovered Labrador and New- 
foundland, and later explored the coast to the Carolinas. Nine- 
teen years after, in 1517, he sailed as far north as the Hudson Bay ; 
still later he explored the coast of Brazil, discovering and naming 
the Rio de la Plata. 

10. Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, discovered and explored the 
eastern coast of South America in 1499. 

11. De Leon, a Spanish explorer, sailed with Columbus on his 
second voyage and was made governor of Porto Rico. He heard 



92 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

that there was a fountain whose waters would restore youth, exist- 
ing somewhere in the new country, and he set out to discover it 
He landed near St. Augustine, in 1512, and named the country 
Florida. 

12. Verrazani explored the coast from the Carolinas to New- 
foundland, and named the entire region New France. 

13. September 17, 1565, by Pedro Melendez. 

14. It is a round building made of unhewn stone. There are two 
windows in it, and it rests upon eight columns. It is well preserved , 
except that it is roofless. It is supposed to have been constructed 
by the Norsemen who attempted to make settlements in that vicinily. 

15. It is a rock near Dighton, Massachusetts, having upon it an 
inscription in an unknown language, supposed to have been made by 
the Indians. 

16. In 1499 he made a voyage to the New World, and was the 
first to publish an account of it. 

17. In 1534 Cartier was sent by the French king to make a set- 
tlement in New France. He -xplored the gulf around Newfound- 
land, and discovered the mouth of <-» reat river. A year later he 
came again, passed up the 3t. Lawrence, which he named, and 
stopped at Quebec. The natives were friendly to the French, but 
when the latter sailed for France they decoyed on board the Hu- 
ron ki. «:, and took him to France, wher he died. For this rea- 
son when they returned four years la'er the Indiars were hostile, 
and after much suffering the French were obliged to give up the 
idea of settlement. 

18. De Soto, a follower of Pizarro, having been appointed gov- 
ernor of Cuba and Florida, set out to conquer the latter country, 
and search for gold. He landed at Florida, sent most of his vessels 
back to Cuba, and pushed towards the interior. They wandered 
round the country, vainly searching for treasure, and fighting the 
hostile Indians. In the spring of 1541 they discovered the Missis- 
sippi River. They continued their wanderings till the following 
spring, when they returned to the Mississippi, where De Soto died. 
His followers sunk his body in the river. After roaming over the 
prairies till more than half of them died, the remainder embarked 
in rude boats on the Mississippi. They sailed down the river and 
about the Gulf of Mexico, till at last they reached a small settlement 
and were sent to Cuba. 

19. 

20. The Huguenots were greatly persecuted in France, and Co 
ligny determined to send them to a place of refuge beyond the 
Atlantic. In 1562 a company under John Ribault discovered Port 
Royal entrance, and chose that spot for their settlement, building a 
fort, which they named Carolina, after Charles IX. Ribault re- 
turned to France for supplies, but war wa^ raging and Coligny was 
powerless. After waiting a long time the little garrison built a rude 
vessel and put to sea. They were picked up by an English ship 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 93 

and taken to France. Later, in 1564, Coligny sent another com- 
pany, who landed near St. Augustine. Many of these depredated 
on Spanish property in the West Indies, and in punishment they 
were all murdered by the Spaniards under Melendez. 

21. Newfoundland. 

22. He sent a number of expeditions. They explored the coast 
about Virginia, but all attempts at colonization failed. 

23. In 1602 Gosnold tried to plant a settlement on Nantucket and 
Martha's Vineyard islands ; in 1605 Dc Monts organized a per- 
manent colony at Port Royal, Nova Scotia; in 1608 Champlain 
founded a settlement on the site of Quebec. 

24. To trade with the Indians, and plant settlements between the 
34th and 38th parallels. The Plymouth Company had the same 
rights between the 41st and 45th parallels. 

25. The London Company sent some emigrants in 1607 to settle 
on Roanoke Island. A storm drove them into Chesapeake Bay, and 
they entered a river, naming it the James. They landed about fifty 
miles up the river, calling the place Jamestown. Most of these set- 
tlers were unfit for this enterprise. They did not prosper till John 
Smith was made president, when he, through his influence with the 
Indians, established a degree of prosperity. Smith was obliged to 
go to England for medical advice ; and six months after, the colony, 
very much reduced, abandoned Jamestown. The next day ships 
arrived with new emigrants and fresh supplies, and all returned to 
Jamestown. In 1619 the first representative assembly of America 
met at Jamestown. 

26. John Smith came over with the first settlers of Jamestown. 
He made great exploring expeditions, travelling three thousand miles 
within three months. Once he was made captive by the Indians, 
but through tbe intercession of Pocahontas his life was spared. He 
constructed a map of his explorations, which is still in existence in 
England. 

27. Pocahontas was the favorite child of Powhatan, an Indian 
chief. She was stolen, and carried on board a vessel to James- 
town. Here she met Johi Roll" , whom she married. Afterward 
she accompanied him to England, dying there. 

28. Hudson was eager to discover the north-west passage to 
India. He made two voyage^, but was stopped by the ice. In 
1609 he discovered the Hudson River. On his next voyage he 
sailed into Hudson Bay, where his crew mutinied, and left him 
and his son to perish. 

29. In 1623, by the Dutch, on Manhattan Island. 

30. After suffering severe persecution in England the Pilgrims 
fled to Holland. Hearing from the Dutch voyagers about the new 
world, they resolved to go there. Having obtained consent of the 
Plymouth Company to settle in Virginia, they proceeded thither j 
but anchoring within Cape Cod, they landed on the 22d of Decem- 
ber, 1620, and named the place Plymouth. 



94 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

31. Slavery was introduced in Virginia in 1611. A Dutch vessel 
sailed to Jamestown, and offered at auction 20 negroes, who were 
bought, and made slaves for life. 

32. (a) Between 1628 and 1030 they founded the towns of Salem, 
Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester, Cambridge, Watertown, and Charles- 
town. 

(b) The coast of Connecticut was first explored by Adrian Block 
in 1614. Later some Dutch traders built a fort on the Connecticut 
River. In 1333 a company of English settled at Windsor, and this 
company was increased by some Puritans, who built a small meet- 
ing-house on the site of Hartford. In 1636 about 100 left Boston, 
and settled at Hartford and Wethersfield, and a fort had also been 
built at, SaybrooL. 

(c) Maryland was first settled by persecuted Roman Catholics from 
England. The first company reached the banks f the Potomac in 
December of 1633, and founded the town of St. Mary. 

(d) Roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts. In 1636 
he crossed Narragansett Ba,, and named the place where he landed 
Providence. Two years later William Coddington and others set- 
tled in this vicinity, and in 1644 they united their Fcttlenents, and 
thus established the commonwealth of Rhode Island. 

(e) Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason obtained a grant of land 
extending from the Merrimac to the Kennebec, and inland t6 the 
St. Lawrence. In 1629 Gorges gave Mason a part of this grant, 
and he named the domain New Hampshire. 

{f) Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn. The land was 
given him by King Charles II., on account of services rendered by 
Penn's father. Penn's object in founding Pennsylvania was to plant 
a colony where his brethren might live peaceably. 

(g) In 1664 New Netherland passed into the hands of the English, 
and all the territory between the Hudson and Delaware rivers, north 
to the line of 41 degrees, was conveyed to Lord Berkeley and Sir 
George Carteret under the title of New Jersey. Soon after several 
families from Long Island settled at Elizabethtown. 

33. The Pequods becoming jealous of the growing power of the 
white people continued to annoy them till the English declared war. 
Uniting all their forces, they marched to the Pequod country, took 
the chief fort, and killed more than 600 persons. After this the 
terrified Pequods made little resistance, and the English did not 
stop until the whole race of Pequod Indians was exterminated. 

34. Delaware was settled by the Swedes in 1637; it was afterwards 
taken from them by the Dutch, and still later became a part of Pen- 
sylvania. A company of Barbadoes planters in 1665 made some per- 
manent settlements in North Carolina, In 1670 two ships with emi- 
grants came and planted a settlement on the Ashley River a few 
miles aDove Charleston, and this was the first seeds of a' South 
Carolina colony. A year later fifty families came and a large num 
ber of slaves. James Oglethorpe led the first settlers to Georgia 
They were mostly laborers, who had been thrown into prison^ in 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 95 

England because they were indebted to the rich. In 1773 the town 
of Savannah was erected. 

35. A few came in the belief that they would find gold ; but 
most of them came to avoid religious persecution and secure greater 
personal freedom. 

36 It was the winter and spring of 1610, when the Indians, 
thinking to exterminate the English, refused to supply them with 
any provisions. 

37. It was severe weather, many sickened and died, and those 
who survived endured much suffering. 

38. The Spanish, the French, and the English. 

39. Florida, New France, and Virginia. 

40. The English claimed all the land between the 34th and 45th 
parallels. The French claims were north, and the Spanish south, 
of those parallels. 

41. They were sent over from England, the planters paying their 
passage. 

42. The Roman Catholic. 

43. James Edward Oglethorpe. 

44. A woman who was banished from Massachusetts in 1637 be- 
cause of her religious views. She taught that as the Holy Spirit 
dwelt in every believer, its revelations were superior to man's teach- 
ings ; that each individual had the right to judge of the soundness 
of the minister's teaching ; and she firmly declared the doctrine of 
Eiec tion. 

45. The Quakers were opposed to paying taxes, and would not 
fight in war. The Puritans wished them to leave New England, but 
they would not go; so they were imprisoned, publicly whipped, and 
several of them hung. 

46. On account of the increasing number of settlements of the 
white people, King Philip determined to unite all th: Indians in one 
effort, to drive away the English. He struck the first blow in 1675, 
at Swanzey, as the people were returning from church, and many 
were "lain. Then all the New England forces united in quelling 
the Indians. It was finally accomplished; but the war lasted two 
ycar3, and as many as 600 lives were sacrificed, and 12 or 13 towns 
destroyed. 

47. In 1686 Sir Edmund Andros was appointed governor of all 
the New England colonies. When he demanded a surrender of 
their charters, all complied except Connecticut, and Andros went to 
Hartford to enforce obedience. The assembly continued in session 
till candles were lighted, when the charter was laid on the table. 
As Andros stepped forward to take it the lights were blown out, 
and Captain Wadsworth, under cover of the darkness, seized the 
charter and concealed it in the hollow trunk of an old oak-tree near 
the Assembly chamber. 

48. King William's, Queen Anne's, King George's. 



g6 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE, 

49. This belief in witchcraft broke out at Salem in 1692 and lasted 
six months, during which twenty persons suffered death, fifty-five 
were tortured into a confession of witchcraft, and great numbers 
thrown into prison. Excitement on the subject was intense, and 
neither age, sex, nor rank afforded protection from suspicion. 

50. The Dutch West India Company offered large tracts of land 
and certain privileges to those who should send or lead a certain 
number of emigrants to occupy and till the soil in New York. The 
proprietors of these estates were called Patroons. 

51. Cornelius May, Peter Minuit, Wouter Van Twiller, Sir Wil- 
liam Kieft, Peter Stuyvesant. 

52. Charles II. gave the whole territory of New Netherland to his 
brother the Duke of York, who sent an English squadron to conquer 
the Dutch. It was an easy conquest, for the Dutch had weak means 
of defence, and having become dissatisfied with Governor Stuyve- 
sant, were quite willing to try English rule. 

53. Harvard College was founded in 1638 at Cambridge, Massa- 
chusetts. William and Mary College was founded in 1692 at Wil- 
liamsburg, Va. Yale College was established at Saybrook, Conn., 
in 1701, and removed to New Haven in 1717. Princeton College 
was incorporated at Princeton, N. J., in 1738. In founding these 
colleges the people thought to strengthen the state by fostering edu- 
cation. 

54. Father Hennepin traversed Illinois and explored the Missis- 
sippi as high as the Falls of St. Anthony. In 1673 Marquette 
sailed for a month down the Mississippi in a canoe, and returned by 
the site of Chicago into Lake Michigan and thence to Detroit. In 
1681 La Salle sailed down the Illinois River to the Mississippi, down 
that river to the Gulf of Mexico, and made the return voyage suc- 
cessfully. 

55. Dutch and English. 

56. The oldest houses were made of earth or logs, and one story 
high covered with thatch; later ones, of wood and brick, two stories 
high in front and one in the back. These houses had immense fire- 
places, in which they burned logs f our feet long. The houses faced 
exactly south, so at noon the sun might shine square into them to tell it 
was dinner-time. — The dress of the people was simple, the law requir- 
ing each to dress according to his means.— In church, families did 
not sit together, but were distributed according to age, sex, or rank. 
Standing in different parts of the church were constables holding a 
wand, with which they touched persons who fell asleep. The ser- 
vices were often four hours long, and the sexton turned the hour 
glass before the minister at tne end of every hour. Their music was 
sung by the congregation from a metrical version of the Psalms. 
Everybody, unless sick, was compelled to go to church. 

57. Disputes arose concerning territorial claims. The English 
claimed dominion westward to the Pacific south of the north shore 
of Lake Erie. The French claimed all the land watered by the 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GkADE. g? 

Mississippi and its tributaries, and they erected more than GO forts 
between Montreal and New Orleans, and formed friendly relations 
with the Indians occupying that territory. The question wasbroughl 
to an issue by a grant of land on the Ohio River to The Ohio Com- 
pany. Surveyors were sent to make boundaries for settlements, 
and' the French considering them intruders seized and imprisoned 
them. 

58. On complaint of the Ohio Company Governor Dinwiddie sent 
a letter of remonstrance to St. Pierre, the French commander, by 
George Washington. In October, with onty three attendants, 
Washington started on a journey of 400 miles. After many hard- 
ships he reached the French headquarters. He received a written 
answer, and after an absence of eleven weeks delivered it to Gover- 
nor Dinwiddie. 

59. 

60. The Ohio Company sent out 30 men to construct a fort on the 
present site of Pittsburg. A party of French and Indians attacked 
and expelled them, and finished the fort, naming it Du Quesne. 
When Washington heard of this, he hastened forward and erected a 
stockade, calling it Fort Necessity. Being joined by 400 men, 
Washington was about to proceed to Fort Du Quesne when he 
learned of the approach of the enemy. After a conflict of ten 
hours, the French commander made honorable terms of capitula- 
tion, to which Washington agreed, and departed with his troops for 
Virginia. 

61. One against Fort Du Quesne, another against Niagara and 
Frontenac, the third against Crown Point, andthe fourth to drive 
the French from NovaScotia. 

62. In the first expedition the English were unsuccessful; the 
second was fruitless; in the third, the English fought a successful 
battle, but failed to take Crown Point; in the fourth, the English 
expelled the Acadians from their homes, and made themselves 
master of the whole of the country east of the St. Croix. 

63. Braddock's army consisted of about 2000 British and provin- 
cials, the latter being commanded by Col. Washington. Washing- 
ton tried to advise Braddock as to the Indian mode of fighting, but 
he would listen to no suggestions and fought according to European 
tactics. The Indians shot from thicket and ravine upon the exposed 
English army, and every officer except Washington was killed. 
When Braddock fell, Washington took command and began a re- 
treat which was so well conducted that the enemy did not follow. 

64. An expedition was planned against Crown Point, and an army 
assembled at Albany, but through the inefficiency of Loudoun, it 
was given up. The capture of the forts at Oswego by the French. 
In 1757 the expedition against Louisburg was abandoned. The same, 
year the French captured Fort William Henry on Lake George. 

65. Wolfe left Louisburg with 8000 troops, and landed a few miles 
below Qnebec. The town was strongly garrisoned, and the main 



98 history of united states— third grade. 

army under Montcalm was stationed in a fortified camp on the north 
banks of the St. Lawrence. Eight weeks passed, and the English 
had made little gain, when Townshend suggested they scale the 
heights of Abraham, and attack the town on its weakest side.^ The 
affair was managed so secretly, that Montcalm had no suspicion of 
it till he saw the whole English army on the plains of Abraham. 
After a severe battle the French broke and fled, and five days later 
Quebec was surrendered. 

66. It was signed at Paris, by which France ceded to Great 
Britain all her claimed possessions in America, east of the Missis- 
sippi and north of the latitude of the Iberville River. 

67. Wolfe and Montcalm. 

68. The natural disposition and character of the colonists were for 
the most part republican, and the growth of public opinion tended 
to independence. The colonists also refused to be taxed without 
representation. The passage by Parliament of acts destructive to 
colonial liberty, such as The Importation Act, Writs of Assistance, 
The Stamp Act, The Declaratory Act, The Mutiny Act, Duty upon 
Tea, The Boston Port Bill, were the causes that led to the Revolu- 
tion. 

69. They unanimously agreed to sustain Massachusetts in her op- 
position to the late acts of Parliament, and adopted resolutions to 
suspend all commercial intercourse with Great Britain till the 
wrongs of the colonists should be redressed. They sent an address 
to the English nation, one to the king, and one to the people of 
Canada, in which they stated their grievances and rights. 

70. Gen. Gage hearing that the Americans were gathering military 
stores at Concord, sent 800 men to destroy them. Meeting 80 min- 
ute-men at Lexington, a skirmish ensued, and seven Americans were 
killed. After destroying the stores, the British hastened back, fol- 
lowed by the Americans, who killed 800 of the British in their re- 
treat. This event thoroughly aroused the country. 

71. May 10, 1775, Connecticut and Vermont militia under Ethan 
Allen and Benedict Arnold surprised and captured Ticondcroga, 
one of the most important forts of the English. 

72. They voted to raise an army of 20,000 men, and elected 
George Washington commander-in chief . 

73. On June 16, 1000 men under Col. Prescott were sent to occupy 
and entrench Bunker Hill, which commanded an important part of 
Boston and the Harbor. Liking the position of Breed's Hill better, 
Prescott proceeded to fortify" that. Gage and his officers were 
greatly astonished when at dawn they saw this work, and de- 
termined to drive the Americans from their position. Three thou- 
sand British landed at the foot of the hill and marched to the attack. 
When the British were within close shot the Americans fired, and 
the front ranks of the British were mown down. The Americans 
kept this up till their ammunition gave out, and were then obliged to 
retreat. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 99 

74. June 15, 1775. 

75. The Americans under Montgomery captured St. John and Fort 
Chambly, and after a feeble resistance Montreal was also surrendered 
to them. The Americans pressed forward to take Quebec. In the 
battle Montgomery was shot, and the Americans had to retreat. 
Later they were driven entirely out of Canada. 

70. The presence of British troops in Boston for the purpose of 
enforcing obnoxious laws increased public excitement, and on the 
5th of March a serious difficulty occurred. An altercation had 
taken place between some citizens and soldiers, and a mob collecting 
near the troops assaulted a sentinel. The soldiers tired, killing three 
and wounding live. This is known as the Boston massacre. 

77. The continuation of the tax on tea embittered the colonists 
more and more, and when it was known in Boston that several car- 
goes were on the way, they asked the governor to have it sent back. 
He refused ; when it arrived a band of men disguised as Indians 
w T cnt on board the ships and emptied the tea into the water. 

78. Massachusetts men who were enrolled in companies and pre- 
pared to take up arms at a moment's notice. 

79. He wished to get control of the extensive sea coast of New 
England, and strengthen its defences. 

80. Clinton foiled in an attempt upon New York, sailed south. 
Lee, after holding New York until Washington arrived with the 
main army, proceeded south to watch Clinton. 

81. It is the day on which the Declaration of Independence was 
signed. 

82. Soldiers hired from petty German rulers by the English king 
to assist in subjugating the colonists. 

83. An army of 30,000 British were collected on Staten Island, 
and, August 22, 10,000 of them crossed over to Long Island. De- 
tachments of Americans under Gen. Sullivan occupied a fortified 
camp in Brooklyn. Washington hearing of the invasion sent Gen. 
Putnam with large reinforcements to take chief command and meet 
the enemy. The American forces on the island numbered about 
5000. The British advanced in three divisions, August 27, attacking 
the American outposts, killing 500 and taking 1100 prisoners. 
Then the enemy encamped near Putnam's lines, delaying further at- 
tack until the British fleet should co-operate. Under cover of a 
heavy fog on the night of the 29th, Washington crossed over from 
New York, withdrew his troops from camp, and unperceived by the 
British, returned, taking everything with them but the heavy 
cannons. 

84. The sugar-houses of New York were made into prisons, and 
old hulks of boats were used as prison-ships. Into these the men 
were crowded by thousands, suffering much brutality at the hands 
of the officers. 

85. First Washington retreated and fortified Harlem Heights; then 



lOOHISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

he withdrew to "Westchester County, where occurred the battle of 
White Plains. The Americans were driven from their position, and 
Washington crossed the Hudson, joining Gen. Greene at Fort Lee. 
Now began the flight of the Americans across New Jersey. Newark, 
New Brunswick, Princeton, and Trenton fell into the hands of the 
British, and Washington crossed the Delaware with less than 3U00 
men. Gen. Howe ordered Cornwallis to wait for the river to freeze, 
and Washington profited by this delay. He was reinforced, and 
had 5000 effective men ; so he determined to attack the Hessians 
whom Howe had stationed about Trenton. Christmas was at hand, 
and thinking the Germans would indulge in carousal, he made 
the attack then, killing about 45 and taking 1000 prisoners with 
arms, ammunition, and stores. 

86. Four months before the Declaration of Independence Congress 
appointed Silas Deane to go to France as their agent and solicit co- 
operation. He obtained 5000 muskets and abundant promises of 
men. After the Declaration of Independence Congress appointed a 
regular embassy to France, and sent agents to Holland, Spain, and 
Prussia. 

87. Cornwallis had left a small force at Princeton, and advanced 
to Trenton, where Washington was encamped. In the night Wash- 
ington withdrew to fall upon the reserve at Princeton. He met a 
part of the troops marching to join Cornwallis, and a severe en- 
counter ensued in which the Americans were victorious. Corn- 
wallis hastened to aid his reserve, and the Americans, being in no 
condition to fight such a number, retreated to Morristown, where 
Washington established his winter quarters. 

88. Howe was marching to Philadelphia, and Washington took a 
post near Wilmington, but was compelled to fall back to the Brandy- 
wine Creek. The Hessians attacked the Americans on the left, and 
Howe and Cornwallis fell upon them on the right. After a severe 
battle the patriots retreated. 

89. Burgoyne took Ticonderoga and sent a force to destroy 
American stores at Bennington. This force was attacked by 
militia from Vermont and New Hampshire under Gen. Stark, and 
defeated. Another British force sent for the same purpose was also 
defeated. When Burgoyne formed a fortified camp on the plains 
of Saratoga, Gates advanced to meet him, and a severe but indeci- 
sive battle took place. Later Burgoyne was hemmed in by Gates's 
army until he was driven to surrender. Forty- two pieces of brass 
artillery, 5000 muskets, and great quantities of ammunition and 
stores fell into the hands of the" Americans. 

90. First they encamped at White Marsh, but on December 11 
removed to Valley Forge, where they endured much suffering, being 
half fed, scantily clad, and living in rude huts. 

91. At York, Pennsylvania. 

92. With France. 

93. It was proposed to repeal all the acts of Parliament since 1763, 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 10 1 

and to treat the Continental Congress as a legal body, and commis- 
sioners were appointed to go to America and negotiate for peace. 

94 Congress refused to negotiate with the commissioners until 
Great Britain should withdraw her fleets and armies, or acknowl- 
edge the independence of the colonies. 

95 Clinton succeeded Howe in command of the British, and he 
withdrew from Philadelphia, across New Jersey, to New York. 
Washington pursued him, and an engagement took place at Mon- 
mouth, N. J., in which the British were compelled to retreat. 

96. Mary Pitcher, while bringing water to her husband, saw him 
fall. She immediately took his place, and managed his gun so well 
that Washington afterwards appointed her a sergeant in the army. 

97. Because the British had gained entire possession of Georgia, 
and were extending their power in the South. 

98. On the 31st of May Stony Point fell into the hands of the 
British, and in July Gen. Wayne marched secretly to recapture it. 
This was so well carried out that the British did not suspect danger 
till the Americans fell upon them. At two o'clock in the morning 
AVayne, though wounded, wrote to Washington of his success. 

99. The defeat of the tories upon the Carolina frontiers. The 
battle on Brier Creek, in which the British were victorious, and the 
siege of Savannah, in which the Americans withdrew. 

100. He was the commander of an expedition of five vessels fitted 
out by the French and American governments to prey upon English 
shipping. While off the coast of Scotland with his flag-ship, the 
Bonhomme Richard, and two other vessels, he attacked a Britis v 
fleet, and after a severe contest the English vessels surrendered. 

101. To re-establish royal power in the South. 

102. The surrender of Charleston to the British; the battle near 
Camden won by the British; the defeat of Sumter by the British ; 
and the battle at King's Mountain, in which the British were totally 
defeated. 

103. Marion, at the head of twenty men and boys, black and white, 
began to annoy the British. His company constantly increased, and 
the " Ragged Regiment" soon became a terror. During the entire 
summer and autumn he swept around Cornwall is, cutting his com- 
munications and making onsets as audacious as they were destruc- 
tive. 

104. In the beginning of the war Arnold fought nobly, and be- 
ing disabled in the battle of Bemis' Heights was made a command- 
ant at Philadelphia. Here he married, and, living far beyond 
his means, engaged in fraudulent acts to gain money. He was tried 
by a court martial, and by order of the court reprimanded by 
Washington. This disgrace made Arnold vengeful, and he began 
treasonable overtures with Clinton, bargaining to betray West Point 
into Clinton's hands. By patriotic professions Arnold got the com- 
mand of West Point, and arranged with Major Andre, Clinton's 



102 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

adjutant-general, a plan of operation. On his way back to Clinton, 
Andre was stopped and searched, and the plot revealed. Andre 
was hanged as a spy, and Arnold escaped to a British ship. 

105. A powerful fleet bearing 6000 troops under Count de Ro- 
chambeau. 

106. Among the Thickcty Mountains, west of the Broad River, in 
South Carolina. The Americans were victorious. 

107. The allied armies of the French and Americans arrived be- 
fore Yorktown on the 28th of September, and began a regular 
siege. This continued till Cornwallis, despairing of aid from Clin- 
ton, surrendered on October 19. 

108. Battle of Guilford, in which the Americans were repulsed ; 
but the British loss was very great. The siege of Ninety-six, which 
the Americans finally abandoned. The battle of Eutaw Springs, in 
which the Americans were victorious. 

109. The Continental money had become almost worthless, the 
pay of the officers and soldiers was greatly in arrear, and a large 
number started for Philadelphia to demand justice from Congress. 
They were met by a deputation, and the matter satisfactorily ar- 
ranged. New York was evacuated on the 25th of November, 1783. 
The terms of the treaty cf peace were these : A full recognition 
of the independence of the U. S.; Great Britain gave back Florida 
to Spain; all the remaining territory east of the Mississippi and 
south of the great lakes was surrendered to the U. S. ; the concession 
of mutual rights in the Newfoundland fisheries; Great Britain re- 
tained Canada and Nova Scotia, with entire control of the St. Law- 
rence. On December 23, 1783, Washington, having bade farewell 
to his officers, delivered an able address to Congress, and surren- 
dered his commission as commander-in-chief of the American army. 
He then retired to his home at Mount Vernon. 

110. They were all impoverished by the war. There was a debt 
of 38,000,000 of dollars. Public affairs were in a condition of chaos. 

111. There was no centralization of power, no system of com- 
mercial regulations, and no way to rid the country of debt. 

112. 4th of March, 1789. 

113. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, 
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir- 
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia. 

114. Washington was inaugurated on the 30th of April, 1789, in 
New York City. The oath of office was administered by Chancellor 
Livingston. In the new government three executive departments 
—Treasury, War, and Foreign Affairs— were formed. A national 
judiciary was established, and also circuit and district courts. 

115. Federalists and Republicans. 

116. The law passed in 1791 imposing duties on domestic dis- 
tilled liquors was resisted in western Pennsylvania by the people in 



HISTORY OF U XI TED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 10$ 

arms. The President quelled this by sending a body of militia to 
enforce obedience. 

117. The French Government was displeased with the treaty made 
between the United States and England by John Jay. Soon after 
Adams's inauguration the American minister was ordered to leave 
France, and thai government permitted depredations upon American 
commerce. Congress appointed three persons to go to France and 
settle the difficulty. They were refused an audience unless they 
would pledge the payment by the United States of a quarter of a 
million The United States immediately began preparations for 
war. and Washington was appointed commander-in-chief. At this 
the French Directory made overtures for a settlement, and Napoleon 
Bonaparte, into whose hands the government fell at this ' time, 
promptly received the United States embassadors. 

118. The Alien Laws gave the President power to expel from the 
country any foreigner whom he thought dangerous to the public 
peace ; the Sedition Laws, the power to imprison any one who 
might be conspiring against the government, and suppress all pub- 
lications calculated to weaken the authority of the government. 

119. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. Because the French refused 
to treat with the American committee unless they should pay a 
tribute. 

120. Before the trouble between the United States and France 
was settled Spain had made a secret treaty with France ceding the 
territory of Louisiana. When Jefferson learned of this he negoti- 
ated with Napoleon for tbe territory, and it was bought in the spring 
of 1803. 

121. It extended from the British possessions on the north to the 
Gulf of Mexico on the south, was bounded on the east by the Mis- 
sissippi, and the west by the Texan annexation, the Rocky Moun- 
tains, and the Pacific. 

122. During Washington's administration Hamilton was Secre- 
tary of the Treasury. On account of a political quarrel he was 
challenged to fight a duel by Aaron Burr, the Vice-President. Ham- 
ilton reluctantly met him near Hoboken, N. J., where they fought 
with pistols. Hamilton discharged his into the air, but was shot and 
killed by Burr. After this Burr became very unpopular, and when 
his term of office ended he went into the West. Here he labored 
two years to perfect a treasonable scheme. His plans were to raise 
a sufficient military force, wrest the government of Mexico from the 
Spaniards, detach the Western and Southern States, and form a south- 
western empire of which he should be dictator. He was suspected 
and tried, but was acquitted for want of sufficient proof. 

123. A proclamation which detained all vessels in American ports, 
and ordered all American vessels abroad to return home. It failed 
to obtain from England and France any acknowledgment of 
American rights, and only crippled American commerce; it was soon 
repealed. 



\Q\HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

124. The Clermont was the first steamboat constructed on the 
present plan. It sailed up the Hudson against wind and tide at the 
rate of rive miles an hour. 

125. They explored the northwestern part of the territory of 
Louisiana. Having asscended the Missouri, they crossed the Rocky 
Mountains, and discovering the two rivers that now bear their names, 
followed them to the Columbia and thus reached the Pacific. Their 
journey lasted nearly three years. 

126. Dispute about the right of searching American vessels suivl 
restrictions laid upon American commerce; incitement of the Indians 
in the West by British emissaries; and, finally, the British press 
boasted that the United States "could not be kicked into war." 
Then Congress laid another embargo act upon all vessels in Ameri- 
can waters, and war was declared against Great Britain. 

127. Battle of Queenstown Heights ; battle on the river Raisin , 
siege of Fort Meigs and Fort Sanduskv ; battle on Lake Erie ; battle 
on the Thames ; battle at Chrysler's' Field ; battle of Chippewa ; 
battle of Lundy's Lane ; battle at Plattsburg. 

128. In 1812, the capture of the British ship-of-war Guerriere by 
the Constitution, the British Frolic by the Wasp (but later both ves- 
sels were captured by a British ship), the Macedonian by the frigate 
United States, and the British Java by the Constitution. In 1813, 
the United States sloop-of war Hornet captured the Peacock, the 
English Shannon took the Chesapeake, and the American frigate 
Essex was also taken. 

129. The battle at Bladensburg, a few miles from Washington. 
The English commander, Ross, pushed on to the city, burned the 
Capitol, President's house, and other public and private buildings. 

130. The uprising of the powerful Creeks in the South insti- 
gated by Tecumtha. Andrew Jackson, accompanied by Gen. 
Cuffee with 2500 Tennessee militia. 

131. Delegates from several New England legislatures met in a 
secret convention at Hartford to devise a measure for the speedy 
termination of the war. 

132. On January 8, 1815, the British, having previously invaded 
Louisiana, advanced to make a general assault upon New Orleans. 
Jackson threw up a line of defence, and concealed 3000 marksmen 
behind his intrenchments. The enemy advanced till within range 
of the American rifles, when volley after volley poured upon them, 
and the entire army fled in dismay. 

133. On the 24th of December, 1814. It merely signified that 
Great Britain and the United States, having been at war, agreed to 
be at peace. 

134. The Buccaneers had two slave-trading establishments, one at 
the mouth of the St. Mary, Florida, and the other at Galveston. 
They carried on a secret trade in slaves, but were stopped by the 
United States troops. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. IO$ 

135. The Seminole and Creek Indians, dissatisfied with the treaty 
of 1814, began depredations on the frontier of Georgia, but were 
suppressed, and removed from the ceded territory. 

136. It was a compromise by which slavery was allowed in Mis- 
souri and all territory south of *36 degrees 30 minutes north latitude, 
and prohibited in all territory north of these limits. 

137. The Federalists and the Republican or Democratic party. 

138. When the countries of South America declared their inde- 
pendence, the United States gave this official recognition through 
Congress. The President followed in his annual message of the 
next" year by declaring that in tli ; future the American Continents 
were not to be considered as subjects for colonization by any Eu- 
ropean power. 

139. In 1824 General Lafayette visited America. Everywhere the 
people received him with warmest enthusiasm, and an American 
frigate was sent by the government to convey him back to France. 

140. It laid heavy protection duties upon cotton and w 7 oollen 
fabrics. 

141. The Erie Canal in New York State. 

142. In 1827 a road three miles in length w r as built at Quincy, 
Mass., leading from the granite quarries to the wharf. 

143. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. 

144. That of giving the civil-service offices to the adherents of the 
party in power. 

145. He vetoed the bill for renewing its charter, and on his own 
responsibility ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to withdraw the 
public fund and deposit it in certain State banks. The Secretary 
refusing to do this was dismissed from office, and his successor 
obeyed the President. 

146. A war began in 1835 b}^ the Seminoles, on account of an at- 
tempt to remove them to the wilderness beyond the Mississippi. It 
lasted four years. 

147. The money that had accumulated in the vaults of the Bank 
of the United States, amounting to nearly $10,000,000. 

148. The operation of the Specie Circular by which payments for 
public lands must be made in coin ; the immense importation of for- 
eign goods that had to be paid for in gold and silver ; the order of 
Congress to withdraw the public fund from the banks and distribute 
it among the States according to their representation ; a fire in New 
York City which consumed property to the amount of $18,000,000. 

149. The bankers asked the President to rescind the Specie Circu- 
lar. He refused, and all the banks in the country suspended specie 
payments. This so embarrassed the government that it was unable 
to obtain coin to discharge its own obligations, and was compelled 
to issue treasury notes. 

150. The campaign of 1840, when Harrison ran against Van 



106 HI STORY OF UNITED STATES- -THIRD GRADE. 

Buren. Because Harrison bad come from the West he was called 
" The Log-cabin Candidate," and all over the country log-cabins 
were built, where political meetings were beld, at which cider was 
the only beverage drank. 

151. The Whigs strongly favored the re-establishment of the 
Bank of the United States ; the Democrats opposed it. 

152. One month. 

153. The bill for the rechartering of the Bank of the United 
States. 

154. A movement to abandon thr old charter and adopt a State 
constitution of government was ma.'.o ii* ithode Island in 1842, and 
a dispute arose concerning the proper meth d ti t pursued. Two 
parties were formed, jach electing a governor, and each took up 
arms. Order was restored by nat: nal tro ps, and Dorr, who had 
been elected in an irrc gular wa, , was imprisoned. 

155. The definite boundary between the United States and 
Canada. 

156. As soon as Texas had thrown off the Mexican yoke she 
asked to be admitted into the Union. At first this was refused, as it 
might cause war with Mexico, but in March of 1845 the bill was 
adopted. 

157. To uphold the interests of slavery, extend its influence, and 
secure its permanent duration. 

158. The first telegraph was invented by Samuel Morse. In 1843 
he procured an appropriation of $30,000, and a telegraph line was 
constructed between Baltimore and Washington. 

159. Depredations upon American vessels and property, the an- 
nexation of Texas, and the dispute about the boundary between 
Mexico and Texas. 

160. A bill brought before Congress in 1846 by David Wilmot to 
prohibit slavery in all the territory which might be secured by treaty 
with Mexico. 

161 By a treaty made at Washington in June, 1846, by which 
the northern boundary of the United States was fixed at 49 degrees 
north latitude. 

162. The Mormons first settled in Jackson County, Missouri; but 
not liking their practices, the people determined to get rid of them. 
The militia was called out, and the Mormons crossed over into Illi- 
nois. Under the administration of Joseph Smith they practised 
laws contrary to the State, and Smith and his brothers were put in 
jail, where they were killed by a mob. In 1846 the Mormons 
marched w r est and founded Utah. 

163. Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma ; battle of 
Buena Vista ; siege of Vera Cruz ; battle at Cerro Gordo ; battles 
near the city of Mexico. In every engagement the Americans 
were victorious. 

164. The whole of New Mexico and Upper California. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 107 

165. A laborer cutting a mill-race in California found pieces of 
gold in the sand. The news spread rapidly ; men became wild with 
excitement, and flocked there by thousands. 

166. The American generals Scott and Taylor, and the Mexican 
general Santa Anna. 

167. A bill introduced by Henry Clay in 1850. It provided, 1st, 
the admission of California as a free State ; 2d, the formation of not 
more than four States out of the Territory of Texas, said States to 
permit or exclude slavery, as the people should determine ; 3d, the 
organization of territorial government for New Mexico and Utah, 
without conditions on the question of slavery ; 4th. the establish- 
ment of the present boundary between Texas and New Mexico, 
and the payment to Texas for the territory surrendered the sum 
of 10.000,000 dollars from the national treasury ; 5th, the enactment 
of a more vigorous law for the recovery of fugitive slaves ; 6th, aboli- 
tion of slavery in the District of Columbia. 

168. A law providing for the arrest in the free States, and the re- 
turn to their masters of all slaves who should escape. 

169. " Uncle Tom's Cabin." 

170. An expedition commanded by Commodore Perry went to 
Japan in 1852. Perry presented the emperor a letter from the 
President which solicited negotiations of a treaty of friendship and 
commerce between the two nations. The expedition was successful. 

171. A bill brought before the Senate by Stephen A. Douglas to 
organize the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, allowing the people 
to decide for themselves whether these States should be free or 
slave-holding. The bill was passed in 1854, and created much strife 
in Kansas, both factions rushing there in order to secure a majority. 

172. Parties residing in Missouri, who could at any time cross the 
border, commit depredations, vote, and then retreat. 

173. The maps on which the treaty with Mexico had been based 
were found to be incorrect, and the difficulty was settled by the pur- 
chase of the doubtful claim by the United States. This is known as 
the Gadsden Purchase. 

174. That part of Arizona and New Mexico lying south of the 
Gila River and west of the Rio Grande. 

175. A party that sprung up during Pierce's administration, their 
most important principle being opposition to foreign influence in 
public affairs. 

176. It was a decision of the Chief Justice that a freed negro slave 
or a descendant of a slave could not become a citizen of the Re- 
public. 

177. On October 16, 1859, John Brown, who had conceived the 
idea of liberating the slaves of Virginia, went secretly to that State 
with a few followers, and seized the United States arsenal at Harper's 
Ferry. A military force was sent to quell them, and Brown with 
several others was captured and hanged. 

7 



OS HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 



178. Washington Irving. 

179. Dr. Kane was an arctic explorer. He made two expeditions, 
the last one in 1853. 

180. Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge, John Bell, 
Abraham Lincoln. 

181. The Missouri agitation of 1820-21 ; the annexation of Texas, 
thereby increasing the domain of slavery ; the Kansas-Nebraska Bill 
by which the Missouri Compromise was repealed, had aggravated 
the discord between the North and the South ; and when in 1860 the 
South failed to elect their candidate, and saw that the increase of 
population in the j^orth threatened to put them in the minority, they 
thought the time for action had come. They contended that the 
highest allegiance of the citizen was to the State rather than to the 
general government, and that a State had the right to secede. 

182. South Carolina. 

183. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. 

184. Restrained by fear or excessive caution, the President made 
no serious effort to suppress these seizures. 

185. Major Anderson commanded Fort Sumter, and when a govern- 
ment vessel attempted to carry him supplies and reinforcements the 
conspirators tired upon her, driving her out of the harbor. The 
fort was attacked on April 12, and two days later Anderson, whose 
provisions were exhausted, evacuated the fort. 

18G. Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee. 

187. On April 19 the Sixth Mass. Regiment in passing through 
Baltimore was assailed by a mob ; two soldiers were killed and 
several wounded. The battle of Bull's Run occurred on July 21. 
At a moment when the Confederates were about to give way they 
were reinforced, and the National troops defeated with a loss of 
about 3000. Another battle disastrous to the National troops oc- 
curred at Ball's Bluff on the 21st of October. The legislature of 
Missouri had refused to pass a secession ordinance, and that State 
became a battle-field for the contending parties. 

188. The Confederate Congress had appointed Mason and Slidell 
to go to England and France as ambassadors. They escaped to Ha- 
vana, and there took passage in the British steamer Trent. Tic 
vessel was overtaken by a United States frigate, the two men seized, 
taken to Boston and imprisoned. England demanded reparation for 
this insult ; the two men were sent there, and suitable apology made. 

189. The queen issued a proclamation of neutrality, but suffered 
privateers and blockade-runners to be fitted out in English ports. 

190. Missouri, though slave holding, retained her place in the 
Union, and both parties struggled to gain control there. The Con- 
federates under Gen. Polk gathered at Belmont, and Gen. Grant 
was sent to dislodge them. He made a vigorous and successful at- 
tack, but the Confederates being reinforced, Grant was obliged to 
retreat. Early in 1862 a flotilla of. gun-boats, assisted by Grant's 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 10$ 

land forces, captured Fort Henry, and pressed on to take Fort Donel- 
son. After a severe contest, Gen. Buckner's army of 10,000 men, 
and all the magazines, stores, and guns of the fort, were surrendered 
to the Federals. After this victory Grant ascended the Tennessee 
and established a camp near Shiloh Church, where he was attacked 
by the Confederates. A severe battle occurred, with great slaughter 
on both sides, but the Confederates were at length forced to retreat. 
About this time New Madrid and an important fort on Island 
Number Ten was surrendered by the Confederates to Gen. Pope. 
This opened up the Mississippi as far down as Memphis, and shortly 
after that city was also taken. Grant's purpose was now to com- 
plete the opening of the river throughout its entire length. His 
first point of attack was Vicksburg, which was regarded impreg- 
nable. By a series of skillful movements Grant gained a suitable 
position for operations. A number of battles took place favorable 
to Grant, and Pemberton was at last forced to surrender Vicksburg. 

191. On March 8 the Merrimac, a new kind of naval vessel, pro- 
duced great havoc in Hampton Roads by destroying several frig- 
ates. The next morning a newly invented floating battery named 
the Monitor steamed out to meet the Merrimac and opened fire. 
For two hours both vessels kept this up without any effect, till the 
Monitor put a shell through a port-hole of the Merrimac, killing 
many of the crew. The Merrimac was disabled and then with- 
drew. 

192. Under Gen. McClellan they marched by the way of the 
Peninsula between the James and York rivers, and remained at 
Fortress Monroe till April 3, when they proceeded toward the 
capital. Yorktown was taken, the Confederates fleeing to Rich- 
mond. The Union troops pursued them, and a severe engagement 
took place at Williamsburg, in which the Nationals were victorious. 
When they were within seven miles of the city, on the 31st day of 
May, the Confederates attacked them at Fair Oaks, and for two days 
a battled raged with great fury. McClellan's victory was by no 
means decisive. The Confederate commander, Gen. Johnson, was 
wounded, and his place rilled by Robert E. Lee. On June 25 Lee 
swept down upon the right wing of the Union army, and an indeci- 
sive battle was fought. For seven days the struggle between the two 
armies was kept up. McClellan, instead of pushing on to Rich- 
mond, retired a few miles down the river, and Lee formed tbe plan 
of capturing Washington. Then McClellan was ordered to hasten 
to the aid of the troops about Washington. There were battles at 
Cedar Mountain and Bull's Run. The contest was severe, and the 
Nationals were driven to the fortifications about Washington. 

193. Gen. Lee led his army across the Potomac, capturing Har- 
per's Ferry with 11,000 men and all its munitions of w 7 ar. On 
September 17 a great battle was fought near Antietam Creek. The 
Confederates, being beaten with a loss of £0,000 men, crossed the 
Potomac and retired toward Richmond. 

194. In the summer of 1862 guerrilla warfare was extensively 



1 10 HISTORY OP UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

carried on in Kentucky by detached bands of men. the most noted 
of which was John Morgan's, who committed extensive plunder and 
destruction. 

195. The Confederates were strongly intrenched on the heights of 
Fredericksburg. On December 13 the Union troops began an at- 
tack. Numbers of them were killed, while those on the heights 
lost hardly a man. The assault was renewed again and again till 
Burnside was persuaded to retreat across the river. This battle was 
most disheartening to the Nationals. 

196. . 

197. General Grant spent three months ;,mong the swamps and 
hills around Vicksburg, trying to get a position in the rear of 
the town. Finally he determined to run the fleet past the bat- 
teries. He did this, and then marched his land forces to form a 
junction with his fleet. Then followed the battles at Port Gibbon, 
at Raymond, at Jackson, at Champion Hills, and at Black River 
Bridge, in all of which the Confederates were beaten. Disheark ncd , 
they retired within the defences of Vicksburg. At first Grant tried 
to take the city by storm, but was repulsed, and therefore begun a 
regular siege. The Confederates held out for a month and then sur- 
rendered. By this act an army of 30,000 became prisoners of war, 
and thousands of small arms, hundreds of cannons, large quantities 
of ammunition and stores fell into the hands of the Union. 

198. On the 1st of January, 1863. It proclaimed the freedom of 
all slaves in territories wherein rebellion existed. 

199. In the first week of May the Army of the Potomac under 
Gen. Hooker had a severe encounter with Lee at Chancellorsville. 
Hooker withdrew his forces, losing 17,000. The Confederate loss 
was less than 5000. Elated by his success, Lee invaded Maryland 
in the middle of June, and pushed on to Gettysburg, Penn. There 
he met the Union troops under Gen. Meade, and a severe battle en- 
sued, in which the Confederates were routed. 

200. By attacking Fort Sumter with an iron-clad fleet. 
201. . 

202. Gen. Rosecrans had compelled the Confederates to fall 
back to Chattanooga. From there they were driven to Chicka- 
mauga, where they turned and attacked 'the Union troops, and the 
Nationals retreated. 

203. After the battle of Chickamauga Gen. Grant was promoted 
to chief command of the army in the West. The Confederates were 
stationed in two divisions on Lookout Mountain and Missionary 
Ridge. On November 24, under cover of a heavv fog, the Nation- 
als scaled Lookout Mountain and routed the Confederates. The 
next day Missionary Ridge was taken in the same way, the Con- 
federates fleeing into Georgia. Their loss in killed, wounded, and 
prisoners was over 10,000. 

204. General Morgan, in June, went into Indiana with about 3000 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— Till r A\ III 

cavalry, and moved eastward, plundering as they 
utterly disbanded by home troops,. 

205. On February 3, Sherman left Vicksb made a de- 
structive invasion of the country eastward, and tl 

was next sent to command the army at Chattanooga 
man advanced from this point, driving the Confe 
till they reached Atlanta, and after a heavy siege I; 
tend the city. On November 14, Sherman burned ad b< - 

gan his march to the sea, and in December he took up nis head- 
quarters in the city of Savannah, having carried everything on his 
way. 

206. Sherman garrisoned Savannah, and began his march against 
Columbia, which was surrendered on the 17th of February. He de- 
stroyed the arsenals, machine shops, and foundries of the city, and 
proceeded into North Carolina. On March 17 he was attacked by 
Johnson near Bentonsville, but after tremendous fighting Sherman 
marched on and entered Raleigh, where he received the surrender 
of Johnson's army. 

207. This expedition was conducted in the spring of 1864 by 
Gen. Banks. Its object was the capture of Shreveport, the seat of 
Confederate government in Louisiana. The expedition was a 
failure. 

208. The defences of Mobile were captured by the Western Gulf 
Squadron under Farragut, assisted by a land force under Gen. 
Granger. The vessels sailed into Mobile Bay in pairs lashed to- 
gether, and the last defence was surrendered on August 23. Thus 
the port of Mobile was effectually closed. On April 12, 1865, Gene- 
rals Canby and Wilson with 25,000 troops marched to take the city 
of Mobile, and after a severe engagement entered the city. 

209. For nine months Grant and Lee had confronted each other 
on the James and Appomattox rivers. There had been several hos- 
tile movements, but none of them decisive. On April 1, Grant sent 
Sheridan to get in the rear of Lee, and at Five Oaks a severe battle 
was fought which was very disastrous to the Confederates. The 
fighting "continued, each battle thinning the Confederate forces, till 
on the 9th of April Lee surrendered. 

210. The Confederates under Early had invaded Pennsylvania, 
and returned to the Shenandoah Valley. Grant appointed Sheridan 
over an army of 40,000 to put an end to their raids. He attacked 
and routed Early at Winchester on September 19, and a few days 
later assaulted him again, gaining another victory. Then Sheridan 
with torch and axe ravaged the valley. On October 19, Early 
routed the Union troops, but Sheridan meeting and recalling them, 
they turned upon the Confederates and gained a complete victory. 

211. The Alabama was a British war-ship with a Confederate 
commander. In her whole career she destroyed 66 vessels with a 
loss of 10,000,000 dollars to the merchant service of the United 
States. She was destroyed off the coast of France in June, 1864. 



I 12 Hi:.. >F UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

Other privi e the Sumter and Florida, both constructed in 

England. 
213. Lincoli McClellan. Lincoln was elected. 

213. On April I President Lincoln attended the theatre with his 
wife and ,;ome f -'.Is. As the play drew to a close, John Wilkes 
BootL President's box and shot him through the head. 
Mr. L i following morning. 

214. Nearly three thousand millions of dollars. 

215. By the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. 

216. A proclamation issued on May 29, 1865, by President John- 
son, whereby, upon taking the oath of allegiance to the United 
States, general pardon was extended to all persons, except those 
specified in certain classes, who were engaged in the Rebellion. 

217. Alaska. 7,200,000 dollars. 

218. The attitude of the executive and legislative departments 
became more and more unfriendly. The President began tfie work 
of reorganizing, the governments bf the seceded States, independent 
of Congress, and Congress appointed a Reconstruction Committee 
to devise plans. Congress passed bills for securing the rights of 
citizens to the freedmen, which the President vetoed. He also 
denounced the position of Congress as a new rebellion against the 
government of the United States. 

219. Because of his removal for second time of the Secretary of 
War after the Senate had reinstated him. 

220. Citizenship to the negro. 

221. The cable laid in 1858 soon ceased to work. Cyrus Field 
made fifty voyages across the Atlantic, and secured capital for a 
second cable. This broke. In 1866 the Great Eastern started with 
a third cable, and this time the work was successful. The Union 
Pacific Railroad was projected in 1853. Ten years after, its con- 
struction was begun. It was finished in 1869. 

222. The right of suffrage to the negro. 

223. Claims of the United States for damages caused by the Con- 
federate cruisers that had been built and equipped in England, the 
most destructive of which was the Alabama. The difficulty was 
settled by a court which met at Geneva, Switzerland. Great Britain 
was obliged to pay the United States fifteen and a half millions of 
dollars. 

224. Horace Greeley. 

225. Colorado. 

226. It was a world's fair held at Philadelphia, in celebration of 
the hundredth year of the nation's history. Vast buildings were 
erected ; products were sent from all nations of the world. " Thou- 
sands of foreigners and millions of Americans visited the exhibition. 
It knit a web of acquaintance all over the country. It showed the 
advancement made by America in the arts, industries, and inven- 
tions, and opened up new avenues of trade for the country. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. I I 3 

227. The Sioux Indians retired to their reservation January 1, 
1876. Gold was discovered in the vicinity, and adventurers 
flocked there. This gave the Indians an excuse for plundering; 
breaking over the limits, the Government sent troops to drive 
them back. The trouble was finally quelled, but General Custer 
and nearly 300 of the Seventh Cavalry were killed. 

228. Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel J. Tilden. 

229. A dispute arose as to which candidate was entitled to the 
electoral votes of Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida. There 
was great excitement, some fearing that civil war would ensue. 

230. It did not. 

231. All disputed election returns were referred to a Joint High 
Commission, consisting of five members chosen from the Senate, 
five from the House of Representatives, and five from the Su- 
preme Court, and their judgment should be final. The Commis- 
sion decided that the votes of the disputed States should be 
counted for Hayes. 

232. William M. Evarts. 

233. He withdrew all U. S. troops from the state-houses of 
States formerly in rebellion, and prohibited the interference of 
U. S. troops in the elections in those States. 

234. The President reasoned that these States had been read- 
mitted as States ; that they were no longer subject to the laws of 
war, and could not be regarded as conquered territory. 

235. James A. Garfield and Winfield S. Hancock. 

236. James A. Garfield was born in Ohio in 1831. He was 
graduated from AYilliams College, and afterwards was president 
of Hiram College, Ohio. He was a soldier in the Civil TVar, and 
was made chief of staff to General Rosecrans. In 1862 he was 
elected to the lower house of Congress, in 1879 to the United 
States Senate, and from there to the Presidency. 

237. James G. Blaine. 

238. On the 2d of July, 1881, President Garfield was shot in 
the Baltimore depot at Washington by Charles J. Guiteau. Peo- 
ple from all over the world expressed their sympathy for the 
-wounded President, his family, and the American people. The 
President died on the 19th of the following September. 

239. 50,152,866. 

240. James G. Blaine and Grover Cleveland. 

241. Great enthusiasm prevailed, monster processions paraded 
in the large cities, and efforts were made by each party to vilify 
the opposing candidate. 



114 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

242. The regulation of civil appointments to positions in the 
service of the Government. 

243. Grover Cleveland and Thomas A. Hendricks. 

244. Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware. 

245. General Grant. Ulysses S. Grant was a native of Ohio. 
He was graduated from West Point Military Academy in 1843. 
He served with distinction in the Mexican War. During the 
Civil War, in 1864, he was made commander-in-chief of the 
Union Army. In 1868 he was nominated for President in the 
Kepublican Convention, and had no competitor. He was Presi- 
dent of the United States two terms. Soon after retiring from 
the Presidency he made a tour of the world, and was everywhere 
received witrThonor. In the winter of 1885 it became known to 
the people that General Grant was suffering with throat disease. 
His condition grew worse, and in the following July he died. 

246. The fact that Generals Buckner and Joseph E. Johnston, 
noted Confederate generals, acted with Generals Sherman and 
Sheridan as pall-bearers. 

247. General McClellan. 

248. (1) Extended labor strikes during which much property 
was destroyed and business greatly disturbed. (2) The Anarchist 
riot in Chicago in which seven persons were killed and many 
others injured. (3) The earthquake shocks at Charleston, S. C, 
which continued at intervals for several weeks. (4) The passage 
of a new bill for succession to the Presidency in case of the death 
of the President and Vice-president. (5) The passage of the 
Interstate Commerce Act. 

249. The chief issue was the question whether this country 
should reduce largely the duties on imports advocated by the 
Democratic party or adopt the policy of protection favored by the 
Republican party. — Benjamin Harrison aud Levi P. Morton, the 
Republican candidates, were elected. 

250. James G. Blaine. 

251. Delegates sent as representatives of the leading govern- 
ments of Central and South America by invitation of the United 
States, who met in Washington, Oct. 1889. They spent several 
months in visiting the principal cities of the United States. The 
object of the congress was to effect for commercial purposes a 
closer union of the Americas. 

252. The western half of Indian Territory. Opened at noon on 
April 22, 1889, when about 50,000 people entered the territory 
for settlement. 



HIS TO AY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 1 I 5 

253. A reservoir dam broke during a freshet at Johnstown, Pa., 

and a body of water 40 ft. high and half a mile in width swept 
through the valley at the rate of 2£ miles a minute. The loss of 
life is estimated from two to live thousand ; the destruetion of 
property at $10,000,000. 

254. North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, 
Idaho, and Wyoming. In the latter women are allowed to vote 
and hold office. 

255. James G. Blaine. 

256. The principal issue was the tariff. The Republicans fa- 
vored the schedule of duties according to the "McKinley Bill," 
which had recently been passed by the Republican majority, and 
the Democrats advocated a tariff for revenue only. — Benjamin 
Harrison and Whitelaw Reid were the Republican nominees ; 
Grover Cleveland and Adlai E. Stevenson, the Democratic. The 
latter were elected by a large majority. 

257. The Populist party. — Nationalization and government 
ownership of railroads, telegraphs, etc. 

258. During the spring and early summer of 1893 business be- 
came greatly depressed and money to carry on trade was difficult 
to obtain. Many failures resulted. This condition was attributed 
to the continued large purchases of silver by the Government, and 
an extra session of Congress was called to repeal the Silver Bill. 
A repeal bill passed the House in three weeks. The vote upon it 
was delayed nine weeks longer in the Senate, but passed Oct. 30. 
The repeal restored confidence, but business depression continued. 

259. An international exhibition of arts and industries held at 
Chicago from May to November, 1893. to commemorate the 
discovery of America by Columbus. In size, in beauty and mag- 
nificence of its buildings and grounds, in variety and extensive- 
ness of its exhibits, it surpassed all other World's Fairs. 

260. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act, of 1890, was repealed 
November 1, 1893. It, was thought that a revival of business 
would follow its repeal ; failures, however, continued, business 
depression was widespread, gold went out of the country, and 
imports fell off to such an extent that at the end of the year the 
Government receipts were 134,000,000 behind its expenditures. 
The cause of the depression was attributed to the intention of the 
Democratic Party to repeal the McKinley tariff. William L. Wil- 
son, of West Virginia, introduced a new tariff bill at the regular 
session of Congress, in December, 1893. This bill became a law 
on August 27th of the next year without the President's signature. 
One section of this bill provided for a tax of 2 per cent on all in- 



Il6 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

comes of more than $4000. The constitutionality of the income 
tax was contested and the Supreme Court declared the law un- 
constitutional. Business depression continued, gold was with- 
drawn from circulation, and the reserve of gold in the Treasury 
fell so low that bonds were issued from time to time in order to 
maintain the gold reserve, so that during 1894-5 $262,000,000 
were added to the bonded debt of the Government. 

261. When Mr. Cleveland came into office there was pending in 
the Senate a treaty providing for the annexation of the Hawaiian 
Islands. In January, before Mr. Cleveland's inauguration, a rev- 
olution took place in those islands, in which the Queen, Liliuko- 
lani, was deposed and a provisional government set up. Com- 
missioners had been sent from the provisional government to 
Washington to negotiate a Treaty of Annexation. This treaty 
was sent to the Senate for approval on February 15th. During 
the revolution a force of marines had been landed from a United 
States vessel at the request of the leaders of the revolution, and 
the American flag had been raised over some of the buildings. 
President Cleveland, fearing that the presence of these marines 
might have contributed to the success of the revolution, de- 
termined to recall the treaty from the Senate and send a para- 
mount commissioner to the islands to investigate. The commis- 
sioner reported that the revolution would not have occurred had 
it not been for the presence and aid of the marines from the 
United States vessel " Boston," and that the deposition of the 
Queen was due to the United States officials. President Cleve- 
land, therefore, sent a new minister instructed to announce that 
the annexation would not be confirmed, and to use all efforts to 
reinstate the Queen. In this he failed because President Dole, of 
the Hawaiian Republic, denied the right of the President of the 
United States to interfere in the internal affairs of Hawaii, and 
refused to recognize the Queen. 

262. A dispute in the boundary line between Great Britain and 
Venezuela had gone on for nearly half a century. In 1895 Pres- 
ident Cleveland, feeling that the United States should take cog- 
nizance of the encroachments which Great Britain was making 
upon the territory of Venezuela, reasserted the Monroe Doctrine, 
informing Great Britain that the established policy of the United 
States .was against the forcible increase of territory by any Euro- 
pean power in the New World, and inviting Great Britain* to sub- 
mit her claims to arbitration. Great Britain replied that the 
Monroe Doctrine was not applicable to the state of things at the 
present day. The President then asked Congress for authority to 
appoint a commission to examine into the question and to report. 
After their report, President Cleveland declared that in his opin- 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. I 1 7 

ion it was the duty of the United States to resist by every means 
in its power the wilful aggression of Great Britain upon the rights 
of Venezuela. Great excitement was thereby aroused in Great 
Britain and in our own country, but at length a Treaty of Arbi- 
tration was signed at Washington between Great Britain and Ven- 
ezuela. 

263. The Republican Convention, which met in June, nominated 
William McKinley, of Ohio, and Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey, 
and declared the opposition of the Republican Party to free coin- 
age of silver except by international agreement. The Democratic 
Convention met in July and nominated William J. Bryan, of 
Nebraska, and Arthur Sewall, of Maine, and declared for the free 
and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold at the ratio of 16 
to 1, without waiting for the expression or consent of any other 
nation. A very exciting campaign ensued. There was a split in 
the Democratic Party, and a convention of the gold Democrats 
was held in September which took the name of the National 
Democratic Party, and nominated John M. Palmer and Simon P. 
Buckner on a platform which declared for gold standard. There 
were other nominations for the presidency by the Prohibitionists, 
by the National Party, by the Socialist Labor Party, by the Silver 
Party, and by the Populists. The Silver Party indorsed the 
nomination of Bryan and Sewall. The Populists nominated 
Bryan and Thomas E. Watson. The campaign was carried on to 
educate people on the effect upon finances and the credit of the 
country of a gold standard and as to a silver standard. The 
election resulted in the choice of McKinley and Hobart. 

m'kinley's administration. 

264. After his inauguration President McKinley called a special 
session of Congress to revise the tariff. On the 24th of July, 1897, 
the work of Congress ended in the enactment of the Dingley 
Tariff. 

265. Large importations of merchandise were made to take 
advantage of the low f tariff of the Wilson Bill before the Dingley 
Tariff went into effect. 

The Dingley Tariff failed to increase the revenues sufficiently 
to meet the expenditures of the Government and was therefore a 
disappointment to its promoters. 



SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 

266. Cuba was laid waste, owing to the Spaniards' plan of 
destroying everything that might afford food or shelter to the 
insurrectionists ; the reconcentrados were crowded in the cities, 



I IS HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

whither they had been driven by the Spaniards, and were dying 
there of starvation, exposure, and disease by thousands ; the 
Spaniards, having brought about all this, were masters of only 
little more than the towns and were themselves rapidly dying 
with disease; the Cubans suffering in the hills and woods were 
gaining on their foes, though not yet able quickly to end the 
horrors of war. The Spaniards were practising all sorts of 
mediaeval cruelties alike on reconcentrados and captured Cubans 
and Americans. 

These conditions caused the Americans to suffer great dam- 
ages through the ruination of their trade, and put their govern- 
ment to great trouble and expense to prevent filibustering ex- 
peditions from leaving its shores, to investigate injuries to 
Americans, to prevent the spread of disease, and to relieve the 
reconcentrados. 

267. On January 24, 1898, in accordance with the decision of 
the United States government " to renew its friendly calls at the 
Cuban ports," the warship Maine was ordered to the harbor of 
Havana. In return the Spanish battleship Vizcaya was immedi- 
ately ordered to call at American ports. On the night of Febru- 
ary 15, in the harbor of Havana, the Maine was destroyed by an 
explosion, in which 266 of her men were killed. A naval court 
of inquiry appointed by President McKinley reported that the 
ship could have been so demolished " only by the explosion of a 
mine situated under the bottom of the ship." Though the court 
was unable to fix "the responsibility for the disaster on any one," 
the general opinion in America and in Europe was that Spam 
was responsible for it, either directly or indirectly. Consequently 
the destruction of the Maine increased the strained relations 
existing between the two governments. 

268. On April 25, 1898. On the grounds of humanity, of 
civilization, and of endangered American interests. 

269. The first engagement of the war was the bombardment of 
Matanzas, Cuba, on April 27, by the New York, Puritan, and 
Cincinnati, of Admiral Sampson's squadron. The defending 
guns of the place were silenced. 

270. Late in May, 1898, Commodor Schley, of the American 
flying squadron, traced the Spanish fleet, in command of Admiral 
Cervera, to the harbor of Santiago de Cuba, and in co-operation 
with Admiral Sampson, of the American heavy squadron, at once 
set guard over the harbor. Preparations were begun for a gen- 
eral siege of Santiago. On June 10 a point of vantage was seized 
at Guantanamo, which was the first invasion of the island made 
by the Americans, and on June 20, 1600 Americans in command 
of General Shatter arrived at the east coast of Santiago Bay, 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. II9 

where, with the help of the fleet and the Cubans, they effected a 
landing. After several skirmishes and the battle of Siboney, the 
Americans succeeded in surrounding Santiago, and on July 1 
began an attack. The Spanish were assisted by their fleet, which 
shelled the positions of the American forces until July 3. Then 
Admiral Cervera made a bold dash for the open sen in order to 
escape, and all of his ships were sunk and he and the other sur- 
vivors captured by the American fleet. The Spanish still refus- 
ing to capitulate, the Americans bombarded the town from their 
ships, on July 11. On this day the Americans were reinforced 
by 6000 men. On July 17 Santiago and eastern Cuba, including 
2500 Spaniards, were formally surrendered to General Shafter. 
The siege cost the Americans 1593 men killed, wounded, and 
missing. 

271. Admiral Cervera having anchored his fleet within the 
narrow-mouthed harbor of Santiago de Cuba, the United States 
at once undertook to entrap the fleet by shutting off its return to 
sea. A plan proposed by Lieutenant Richmond Pearson Hobson, 
of Admiral Sampson's fleet, to accomplish this at the expense of 
the fewest possible lives and ships, was accepted. Accordingly, 
on June 3, Hobson and seven other men ran the coal-carrying 
steamer Merrimac through a terrific fire from the Spanish forts 
on shore, into the narrowest part of the harbor entrance, and 
sank her there in such a position as to prevent the passage in or 
out of any large vessel. The eight men escaped with their lives 
and surrendered to the Spanish, but their exploit marked the 
turning-point of the war in favor of the United States. 

272. On July 3, the Spanish fleet of six battleships passed the 
Merrimac obstruction one by one and attempted to dash past the 
United States fleet, also of six ships, guarding the mouth of the 
bay of Santiago de Cuba. A battle ensued in which the Ameri- 
cans, though two of their battleships were too far away to en- 
gage in active fight, sank every Spanish ship. 

273. On July 7. At the opening of the Spanish-American 
"War, the Hawaiian Islands deferred proclaiming neutrality, and 
in April President Dole offered the Islands to the United States 
as a basis and source of supplies during the war. Measures to pro- 
tect the Islands from punishment for this act culminated in their 
annexation. 

274. Though Commodore Dewey's brilliant annihilation of the 
Asiatic fleet of Spain on May 1, 1898, opened to him the door of 
the Philippine Islands, in order to take possession of them he 
needed reinforcements. For this purpose General Merritt was 
sent to him with about 20,000 men. By July 25 General Mer- 
ritt and his troops had reached their destination, and a combined 



120 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES— THIRD GRADE. 

attack by land and sea was begun on Manila. On August 13 the 
Spaniards were driven to the city walls and the city was surren- 
dered to the Americans, their seizure of the city thus occurring 
before the news of the protocol reached the Islands. 

275. The campaign in Porto Kico was undertaken on the same 
plan as that of Cuba. The Spaniards were 6000 or 8000 strong 
and were intrenched mostly in the north, in and about San 
Juan, while in the south they held Ponce, next in size to San 
Juan. The Americans guarded the north coast with their navy, 
and sent the army of 3415 men under General Miles, to begin its 
work in the south, near Ponce. A landing was made in the har- 
bor of Guanica on July 25, and on July 27, with the aid of menaces 
of bombardment from the fleet, Ponce was captured peaceably. 
The victors were welcomed as deliverers by the Porto Ricans. 
Warranted by their attitude, General Miles ordered detachments 
of his small army to advance in all directions. At the end of 
nineteen days the peace protocol brought hostilities to an end ; 
all the manoeuvres were left incomplete, it is true, but during the 
entire campaign the Americans had advanced steadily with no 
opposition more serious than four or five skirmishes. They were 
within a short distance of San Juan, when the protocol ended the 
war. 

276. On August 12 the protocol was signed at Washington, D. 
C. Its chief points were summed up in the official announcement 
as follows: 

1. That Spain will relinquish all claim of sovereignty over and 
title to Cuba ; 

2. That Porto Rico and other Spanish islands in the West In- 
dies, and an island in the Ladrones, to be selected by the United 
States, shall be ceded to the latter ; 

3. That the United States will occupy and hold the city, bay, 
and harbor of Manila pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace 
which shall determine the control, disposition, and government 
of the Philippines; 

4. That Cuba, Porto Rico, and other Spanish islands in the West 
Indies shall be immediately evacuated, and that commissioners, to 
be appointed within ten days, shall, within thirty days of the 
signing of the protocol, meet at Havana and San Juan, respec- 
tively, to arrange and execute the details of the evacuation ; 

5. That the United States and Spain will each appoint not 
more than five commissioners to negotiate and conclude a treaty 
of peace. The commissioners are to meet at Paris not later than 
October 1 ; 

6. On the signing of the protocol hostilities will be suspended, 
and notice to that effect will be given as soon as possible by each 
government to the commanders of its military and naval forces. 



HISTORY OF UNITED STATES—SECOND GRADE. 121 



ANSWERS TO HISTORY. SECOND GRADE. 

1. East of the Mississippi were the Algonquins, Huron-Iro- 
quois, Mobilians, Cherokees, Tuscaroras, Catawbas, Uchees, and 
Natches ; between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains were 
the Dakotas ; the Shoshones occupied territory on both sides of 
the Rocky Mountains ; and between these mountains and the 
Pacific were the Athabascans, Californians, Klamaths, and Selish. 

2. The Mohegans to the Algonquins, Creeks and Seminoles to 
the Mobilians. The Powhatan Confederacy, and the Sacs and 
Foxes to the Algonquins. The Sioux to the Dakotas. The Mo- 
hawks to the Huron-Iroquois. 

3. They believed in the existence of two spirits, one good and 
the other evil ; they also adored an invisible great master of life 
which they called Manitou. They thought every animal had a 
great original ; the first buffalo, the first eagle, etc., was the Man- 
itou of the whole race. Their government was vested in a 
sachem or chief, who generally owed his elevation to his own 
merits as a warrior or orator. Their habits were very unsettled ; 
they lived in wigwams, which they moved from place to place. 
The men were employed in war, hunting, and fishing, while the 
women performed all menial services. 

4. They were two huge animals similar to the elephant, being 
ten or twelve feet high. Their skeletons have been found in dif- 
ferent parts of the country. 

5. A race of Indians living in New Mexico. Unlike other In- 
dians, they built immense houses of stone, dressed neatly, and 
lived in families. They possessed some skill in various arts. 

6. The snow-shoe and the birch canoe. 



122 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES—SECOND GRADE 

7. Lief Erickson sailed to Labrador in 1001. He explored the 
coast of New England. A year later bis brotber Tborwald made a 
voyage to Massachusetts, and is said to have died at Fall River. 
Another brotber, Tborstein, arrived with a small company in 1005, 
and in 1007 Thorfinn Karlsefne explored the coast still farther south, 
probably to Virginia. 

8. The coast of Massachusetts. 

9. The first colony was planted upon the Isthmus of Darien in 
1510. Balboa was its governor. He discovered the Pacific Ocean 
in 1513. 

10. The West India Islands had been colonized by the Spaniards. 
In 1517 Cordova discovered Mexico, and his tale of the wealth of 
the Mexicans excited the Spaniards, who determined to possess this 
wealth. For this purpose an expedition was sent under Cortez, who 
after a contest of two years subdued the people, and the whole em- 
pire became a Spanish province. 

11. Pizarro, a follower of Balboa, discovered Peru in 1524, and 
after much bloodshed conquered it in 1532. 

12. He circumnavigated the globe in 1577. 

13. San Salvador, Guanahani, Cat Island. 

14. Three times; at Valladolid, St. Domingo, and Havana, where 
he now lies. 

15. In the summer of 1608 Samuel Champlain sailed down the 
St. Lawrence, and planted the first permanent settlement on the site 
of Quebec. Later he ascended the Richelieu River, and discovered 
the lake which bears his name. He had strong religious sentiments, 
and was zealous in behalf of the Jesuit missionaries who had come 
to convert the Indians. 

16. An assembly whose members were representatives sent from 
the various plantations in Virginia. 

17. Virginia Dare, the first white child of English parents, was 
born on the Island of Roanoke, August 18, 1587. 

18. They were indolent, improvident, and dissolute. 

19. Those who came over in the Mayflower and formed the 
Pl}'mouth Colony were Pilgrims. The Massachusetts Bay Com- 
pany, who came ten years later, were the Puritans. 

20. AVhen the Mayflower started from England she was accom- 
panied by another vessel, named the Speedwell ; the latter proving 
unsea worthy, was put back to port, 

21. An organized company of Amsterdam merchants who had 
the exclusive privilege of planting settlements in America. 

22. To the settlement founded by Roger Williams, and the one 
founded by Anne Hutchinson and her followers on an island in 
Narraganselt Bay. 

23. George Fox was the founder of the Quaker sect, and William 
Pcnn was one of the most influential among his converts. Charles 



HIS TOR Y OF UNI TED S TA TES— SECOND GRADE. I 2 3 

the Second gave Pcnn a grant of land west of the Delaware, and 
the province was named Pennsylvania. 

24. The name applied to what is now Nova Scotia and a part of 
New Brunswick. 

25. In 1587 Raleigh sent a company of Englishmen and their 
families to Virginia. 

26. This colony settled on the island of Roanoke, with John "White 
for their governor. The Indians threatened them, and White re- 
turned to England for help. On account of wars it was three years 
before he could get back to Virginia, and then not a trace of the 
colony was to be found 

27. The Indians in trying to pronounce the word English called 
it Yankese, and from that came Yankee. 

28. John Elliot. 

29. Henry Hudson. 

30. A bundle of arrows wrapped in a rattlesnake's skin. The 
governor accepted it, and returned the skin filled with powder and 
shot. 

31. Gov. Fletcher of New York held a commission, giving him 
command of the militia of Connecticut. The Legislature refused to 
acknowledge Fletcher's authority, and when he had the militia drawn 
up in a line at Hartford, under Captain Wadsworth, and attempted 
to read his commission, the drums were beaten. Fletcher tried to 
stop them, but Wadsworth boldly stepped up and said, " Sir, if they 
are again interrupted, I'll make the sun shine through you in a 
moment," Fletcher seeing it was useless to assume further author- 
ity, returned to New York. 

32. Peregrine White. 

33. Twenty -four dollars. 

34. A part of New Jersey was sold to the Quakers, the divisions 
being called East and West Jersey, and when spoken of together, 
" The Jerseys." 

35. When Charles II. was a refugee, the Virginians sent a message 
inviting him to come over and be their king. After he was restored 
to his throne, in gratitude to the colonists, he caused the arms of 
Virginia to be quartered with those of England, Scotland, and Ire- 
land, as an independent member of the Empire. From this circum- 
stance Virginia received the name of " The Old Dominion." 

36. A persecuted sect of Christians from Austria, who settled in 
Georgia. 

37. It was land deeded by the Indians to the successors of Penn, 
granting as much land in a certain direction as a man could walk 
over in a day and a half. By laying out a road and training men to 
walk, an undue advantage was taken of the Indians. 

38. In the Mississippi River. 

39. There had been a growing discontent in Virginia, on account 



124 HISTORY OF UNITED ST A TES— SECOND GRADE. 

of the oppressive measures of Governor Berkeley. This added to 
Indian depredations led to a rebellion at the head of which was 
Nathaniel Bacon. His support became so powerful that Berkeley 
was obliged to give him a commission to fight the Indians ; but 
after he had gone, Berkeley proclaimed him a traitor, and took up 
arms against him. With an armed force Bacon returned, took the 
city of Jamestown and burned it, A short time after Bacon died, 
and the rebellion subsided. 

40. At the first mint for coining silver money established in Mas- 
sachusetts, the threepence, sixpence, and shilling sterling had 
stamped upon one side of them the effigy of a pine-tree ; hence these 
pieces were called pine-tree money. 

41. He was governor of New York from 1674 to 1683. In 1686 
he was made governor of all New England by James II. Andros 
was a tyrant, laying restraints upon freedom of the press and mar- 
riage-contracts, and extorting money in every possible way. As the 
people were about to resist him, James II. was driven from the 
throne. The people of Boston made Andros prisoner, and sent him 
to England charged with maladministration of public affairs. 

42. King William's war was caused by difficulties between Eng- 
land and France. The French colonies, enforced by a large body of 
Indians, began warfare against the English in New York and the 
New England States. The English colonists united in retaliation, 
trying to take Quebec and Montreal, but did not succeed. The war 
lasted eight years, and during this time the French committed many 
heartless cruelties. Four years later England was involved in war 
with France and Spain, and the English colonies were compelled to 
fight both the French and Spanish. This is known as Queen Anne's 
War. Indian warfare again began, and villages were destroyed, and 
men, women, and children murdered. This time the New England 
colonists were more successful. In 1744 King George's AVar oc- 
curred. England and France again took up arms, and were quickly 
followed by their colonists. The most important siege was the cap- 
ture of Louisburg, a Canadian fortress, by the English. 

43. In 1614 Fort Nassau, just below Albany; in 1623 Fort Orange, 
on the site of Albany ; in the same year Fort Amsterdam, on the site 
of the Battery ; and in 1651 Fort "Casimer, on the present site of 
New Castle. 

44. They subjugated the Swedes, adding their domain to New 
Netherland. 

45. The Dutch became jealous of the growing power of the 
Swedes, who, they thought, were encroaching on their territory. 
When the Swedes took Fort Casimer, the Dutch began preparations 
for an immediate attack. 

46. Indian money. It consisted of little tubes made of shells and 
strung in chains or fastened upon belts. It was used in traffic and 
treaties. 

47. A confederacy composed of five powerful Indian tribes oc- 



HIS TOR Y OF CXI TED S TA TES— SECOND GRADE. I 2 5 

eupying land within the present State of New York. Later they 
were joined by the Tuscaroras, and from that time were known as 
the Six Nations. 

48. Benjamin Franklin. For a great many years he issued an al- 
manac called " Poor Richard's Almanac." 

49. It was a fortified building made of logs, built two stories high, 
the second story projecting over the first. There were narrow open- 
ings through which they might fire muskets, and sometimes open- 
ings for cannons. 

50. William Kief t and Peter Stuyvesant. 

51. A company of London merchants and Virginia land-specula- 
tors, to Avhom was granted a large tract of land on the banks of the 
Ohio, with an exclusive right of traffic with the Indians. 

52. Louisburg is on Cape Breton Island ; Ticonderoga is in the 
northeastern part of New York, on Lake Champlain; Fort Du Quesne 
was located where the city of Pittsburg now stands. 

53. Louisburg and Fort Du Quesne. 

54. The capture of Montreal and all other French posts in 
Canada. 

55. Pontiac, an Indian chief, had been an early ally of the French, 
but afterwards professed friendship toward the English. Growing 
jealous of their increasing power, he formed a confederacy with 
other tribes to exterminate the English west of the Alleghanies, but 
the Indians were speedily subdued. 

56. The French inhabitants of Acadia refused to take the oath 
of allegiance to England, so the English soldiers were sent to re- 
move the Acadians. Some were compelled to march to the sea- 
shore and embark in boats, others to retreat into the woods. In the 
confusion families were separated, and 7000 people made homeless. 

57. Thomas Faucett, one of his own soldiers. 

58. Canada and all of the French possessions east of the Missis- 
sippi, except some fishing- stations near New Foundland. 

59. He was one of the boldest pioneers of the West. He went 
over the mountains as early as 1769, and several years later he made 
a settlement which was named Boonesborough. 

60. He was murdered by an Indian. 

61. They were search-warrants allowing the king's officers to enter 
any store or private dwelling to search for and seize foreign mer- 
chandise on which duty had not been paid, and compelling sheriffs 
to assist in this work. 

62. In November of 1765. It was repealed on the 18th of March, 
1766. 

63. They were blue, and were to be attached to all paper or 
parchment on which a legal instrument was written. 

64. Two pounds. 

65. Faneuil Hall, Boston. 



126 HISTORY OF UNITED ST A TES— SECOND GRADE. 

66. "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell, and 
George III —may profit by their example. If that be treason, make 
the most of it." 

67. After the destruction of the tea iu Boston Harbor, Parliament 
ordered the port of Boston to be closed against all commercial trans- 
actions, and the custom-house, courts of justice, and all public 
offices to be removed to Salem. 

68. Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. 

69. Colonists who were loyal to the king. 

70. General Warren. 

71. It was composed of thirteen red and white stripes, symboliz- 
ing the thirteen revolting colonies. In one corner was the device of 
the British flag— a combination of the crosses of St. George and 
St. Andrews. 

72. Congress having no funds at command was obliged to issue 
bills of credit, for the payment of which they pledged the public 
faith. This was called Continental money. At first it passed for 
full value, but so many bills were issued that at last seventy five 
dollars in Continental money were worth but one dollar in specie. 

73. Thomas Jefferson. 

74. John Adams and Benjamin Franklin. 

75. It was received everywhere with enthusiastic applause and 
general rejoicing. 

76. It gave them experience, and showed them their strength and 
the necessity of united effort. 

77. The white cross in the corner which marked the British flag 
was changed to thirteen white stars upon a blue groundwork. 

78. In April of 1777, Governor Tryon, at the head of two thousand 
British and Tories, marched to Danbury, Conn., burned the 
town, destroyed a large quantity of stores, and cruelly treated the 
inhabitants. 

79. Colonel Meigs, with less than two hundred men, crossed Long 
Island Sound from Connecticut in whale-boats, attacked a British 
provision-post at Sag Harbor, burned the store-house and a dozen 
vessels, and took ninety prisoners without losing a single man. A 
short time later, one dark night, Colonel William Barton with a few 
picked men crossed Narragansett Bay, passing through a British 
fleet, and went to the house where General Prescott, the British 
commander on Rhode Island, was sleeping, took him from his bed, 
and made him prisoner. He was afterwards exchanged for General 
Charles Lee. 

80. In the summer of 1778, Colonel John Butler, with a large 
number of Tories and Indians, entered the valley of Wyoming. 
Most of the few hundred men who had been left to defend the 
valley were killed, and the remainder were obliged to surrender, 
the invaders agreeing to humane terms. But as the families were 
returning to their homes from Forty Fort, wherein they had sought 



HISTORY OF UXITED STATES— SECOND GRADE. \2J 

safety, the Indians broke the treaty, and before night the whole 
valley was a scene of smoking ruins and murder. 

81. General Anthony Wayne, so called because of his daring. 

82. John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart, three 
young militiamen, all residents of Westchester County. Congress 
voted each a silver medal and a pension of $200 a year for life. 

83. Vessels owned by private individuals, and licensed by the 
government to prey upon the enemy's commerce. 

84. Benjamin Franklin, Patrick Henry, John Adams, Thomas 
Jefferson, James Otis. 

85. General Lafayette, Baron Steuben, Baron De Kalb, Count 
Pulaski, Count De Rochambeau, Count D'Estaing. 

86. By the census of 1790 it was 3,929,214. 

87. The campaign against Burgoyne. 

88. Thirty-six dollars. 

89. Nearly eighty millions of dollars. 

90. North Carolina and Rhode Island, because they did not ratify 
the Constitution until after his inauguration. 

91. The Federalists favored the concentration of power in the 
Federal Government ; the Democrats desired its distribution among 
the people. 

92. In the city of New York. 

93. They were very dignified in their manners. The gentlemen 
wore three-cornered cocked hats, coats with silver buttons, knee- 
breeches, and pointed shoes. Ladies wore stiff brocades, tall hats, 
and high-heeled boots. They made very deep bows, and all fashions 
were marked by formality and etiquette. Washington drove to the 
sessions of Congress in a coach drawn by four horses on ordinary 
occasions, on great occasions by six. He held public receptions 
once in two weeks, and Mrs. Washington had evening levees, at 
which all appeared in fullrdress. 

94. Benjamin Franklin. 

95. A right to search American vessels for supposed deserters, and 
to carry away the suspected without hindrance. It was claimed by 
Great Britain. 

96. They met American vessels, seized the merchandise, and held 
the seamen in order to procure ransom-money. 

97. In a naval engagement between the Shannon and the Chesa- 
peake, at the mouth of Boston Harbor, Captain Lawrence of 
the Chesapeake was killed. As he died he exclaimed, " Don't give 
up the ship !" 

98. Winfield Scott. 

99. The battle of New Orleans. 

100. Commodore Perry. " We have met the enemy, and they 
are ours." 



128 HISTORY OF UNITED ST A TES— SECOND GRADE. 

101. It was the period between the time that peace was declared 
with Great Britain and the contest about slavery began. Monroe 
was at the head of the government. He was ably assisted by a 
strong cabinet, and general prosperity reigned. 

102. Indiana, so named from the Indians, was made a State in 
1816. Illinois was a part of Indiana, and came from the name of 
an Indian tribe meaning "The Men." Mississippi and Alabama 
were formed from Mississippi Territory, Mississippi meaning " The 
Great River." Missouri was formed from Louisiana Territory, and 
means " Muddy Waters." Maine was formed out of Massachusetts, 
and named in honor of Henrietta Maria, Queen of Charles I., who 
owned the province of Maine in France. 

103. To their famous debate in the United States Senate, when 
Hayne appeared as the champion of State rights, and Webster 
as the advocate of constitutional supremacy. 

104. The Whigs. 

105. If foreign governments did not keep up 1o their agreements, 
Jackson assumed a hostile tone which compelled them to perform 
their duty. 

106. In 1850 General Lopez wished to invade Cuba and rid the 
island of Spanish bondage, but he was not supported because it was 
in violation of existing laws. Several months later, however, Lopez 
left New Orleans with nearly five hundred men and landed in Cuba. 
They were soon dispersed, and Lopez with six of his followers was 
executed. 

107. The politicians in the Slave States resolved to form a vast 
empire with its centre at Havana, reaching northward to Pennsyl- 
vania and south to the Isthmus of Darien. South Carolina took 
the lead, and was followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, 
Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas ; and a Southern Confederacy was 
formed by delegates from these States, with the title of Confederate 
States of America. It was wholly the act of politicians, and was 
never submitted to the judgment of the people. 

108. Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky. He received but 
little education, and at the age of nineteen was a hired hand on a 
boat in New Orleans. He afterwards settled in Illinois, and was 
clerk in a store. In 1834 he was elected a member of the Illinois 
Legislature. Two years later he began to practise law. In 1846 
he was elected to Congress, and in 1861 was made President. 

109. William H. Seward. 

110. He tore down the secession flag that was floating over the 
Marshall House in Alexandria, Va., and as he was descending the 
stairs was shot dead by the proprietor. 

111. The Monitor foundered at sea in a storm on her way to the 
South ; the Merrimac was blown up by the Confederates. 

112. West Virginia was separated from the " Old Dominion," 



HISTORY OF UNITED ST A TES— SECOND GRADE. I2g 

and admitted as a State at the request of the inhabitants, who were 
loyal throughout the war. 

113. In 1863 Congress placed the entire resources of the country 
in the hands of President Lincoln, and a conscription act was 
passed by which men could be called to the field at his discretion. 
He called for a draft of 300,000 men ; and on the day the draft was 
to begin in New York City there was a terrible riot. The rioters 
were mostly foreigners, and their violence was chiefly directed 
against the colored population. 

114. He was captured in Georgia, while flying in disguise to the 
swamps. The government had offered $100,000 for his arrest. He 
was imprisoned at Fortress Monroe, but never tried. 

115. The Emperor of France overawed the Mexicans with a 
French army, and set up an Empire. In 1864 he conferred the 
crown on Maximilian, Archduke of Austria. The United States 
rebuked France for violating the Monroe Doctrine ; and Napoleon 
becoming alarmed, withdrew his army, and Maximilian was taken 
prisoner and executed. 

116. Friday, September 24, 1869, certain brokers of New York 
City attempted to get control of the gold market, advance the price, 
then sell out and retire with their accumulated millions. Their 
scheme was prevented by the issuing of four millions from the sub- 
treasury, but it was several months before the business of the coun- 
try recovered from the effects of the excitement. 

117. In October of 1871 a great fire broke out in Chicago. The 
greater part of the city was burned, and two hundred million 
dollars' worth of property destroyed. 

118. Washington, 1789-1797 ; John Adams, 1797-1801 ; Thomas 
Jefferson, 1801-1809 ; James Madison, 1809-1817 ; James Monroe, 
1817-1825 ; John Quincy Adams, 1825-1829 ; Andrew Jackson, 
1829-1837; Martin Van Buren, 1837-1841; William Henry Harrison 
and John Tyler, 1841-1845 ; James K. Polk, 1845-1849 ; Zachary 
Tavlor and Millard Fillmore, 1849-1853 ; Franklin Pierce, 1853- 
1857 ; James Buchanan, 1857-1861 ; Abraham Lincoln, 1861-1865 ; 
Andrew Johnson, 1865-1869 ; Ulysses S. Grant, 1869-1877 ; Ruther- 
ford B. Hayes, 1877-1881 ; James A. Garfield and Chester A. 
Arthur, 1881-1885; Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889; Benjamin Har- 
rison, 1889. 

119. Harrison, Taylor, Lincoln, and Garfield. 

120. Tyler, Fillmore, Johnson, and Arthur. 

121. John Adams and John Quincy Adams. 

122. Andrew Jackson. 

123. Washington and Jefferson. 

124. The Louisiana Purchase in 1803, for which they paid 11£ 
millions ; the Spanish cession of Florida in 1819, about 5 millions ; 
the several Mexican cessions 1845, total, 18^ millions ; the Gadsden 
Purchase in 1853, 10 millions ; Alaska in 1868, 7^ millions. 



130 HISTORY OF UNITED STA TES— SECOND GRADE. 

125. Slavery was abolished, the negroes were made citizens, the 
unity of the nation was preserved. 

126. By imposing a tax on the manufacture of spirituous liquors 
and duties on goods imported into the country. 

127. Most of them were governed as royal provinces ; some made 
their own laws subject to the approval of the proprietors. In Rhode 
Island and Connecticut no authority was reserved by the king, and 
a representative government was wholly in the hands of the people. 

128. Daniel Webster, Alexander Hamilton, Henry Clay, and 
William H. Seward . Washington Irving, Nathaniel Hawthorne, 
Bancroft, and Longfellow ; Daniel Webster, Wendell Philips, Ed- 
ward Everett, and Charles Sumner ; Winfield Scott, Sherman, Sheri- 
dan, and General Grant. 

129. In 1792 in Philadelphia. 

130. It was a Confederation of States, each State retaining its 
sovereignty and independence. There was but one department to 
the general government. This was a Congress of delegates from the 
States. It was changed because Congress had no power to tax, no 
power to regulate commerce, no power to enforce its demands upon 
the States, and there was no judiciary. 

131. In invention and in manufacture. 

132. John Jay, Oliver Ellsworth, John Marshall, Roger B. Taney, 
Salmon P. Chase, Morrison P. Waite, Melville W. Fuller. 

133. Towards the close of 1835, Osceola, chief of the Seminoles, 
made war upon the frontier settlements of Florida. He baffled the 
skill of the United States' troops for four years, but was at last cap- 
tured. He died in prison at Charleston ; Tecumseh and the Prophet 
were brothers. In 1811 they united in depredations against the 
frontiers, but were repulsed in the battle of Tippecanoe. Black 
Hawk was a Sac chief. In 1832, at the head of some western tribes, 
he commenced warfare upon the frontier settlements of Illinois. 
Black Hawk was made prisoner, and taken to Washington. From 
thence he was taken on a trip through the East, that he might see the 
strength of the nation he had made war with. Red Jacket was the 
last great chief of the Senecas. Their possessions in New York 
State were sold in 1838; Powhatan was the father of Pocahontas. 
He was chief sachem when the English first settled on the James 
River, and was friendly to the whites. 

134. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin from the 
Northwest, and Tennessee from the Southwest. 

135. Vermont in 1791. 

136. Spanish and English coins. 

137. Emigration has flowed at the rate of about a million every 
ten years for the present century, and there were (1880) 14,000,000 
people of foreign parentage in the U. S. This large influx has caused 
a very rapid development of the newer parts of the country, thus en- 
larging internal commerce and industry. 

8 



^/3/«rU* ^ 



,U At 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 135 



CHAPTER IV. 

GRAMMAR. 
iFor SJirtr eKra&e* 

1. Define a sentence. 

2. Define subject. Predicate. 

3. Name the four kinds of sentences. Give an example 
of each. 

4. What is a phrase? Give an example. 

5. Define an attribute or complement. 

6. What is a direct object? What an indirect object? 

7. Define an adjunct or modifier. 

8. What is a logical subject? A grammatical subject? 
A logical predicate? A grammatical predicate ? Give ex- 
amples of each. 

9. What are connectives? 

10. When is a word in apposition? 

11. What is an expletive? Give the words that are so 
used. 

12. Define a noun. A pronoun. A verb. An adjec- 
tive. An adverb. A preposition. A conjunction. An 
interjection. 

13. What is an object complement ? Give an exam- 
ple of one. 

14. What is a participle? 

15. What is an infinitive? 

16. Illustrate what is meant by the natural order and 



1^6 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

by the inverted or transposed order of words in a sen- 
tence. 

17. Classify phrases according to the following scheme : 

According to Use or Office -J 
According to Form \ 



Phrases 



ANALYZE THESE SENTENCES. 

18. He was predisposed to think ill of all causes re- 
quiring many words. 

19. Tell me, my soul, can this be death? 

20. They shall be an abhorring to all flesh. 

21. Wouldst thou demolish a driven leaf? 

22. His going to England at such a time must have 
been a public action. 

23. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 

24. Worn out by age and long confinement, the pris- 
oner was at last set free. 

25. The king's persisting in such designs was the 
height of folly. 

26. To profess regard, while inwardly full of contempt, 
is the action of a sycophant. 

27. Saul, yet breathing out threatenings and slaughter, 
went unto the high-priest. 

28. The laurel wreath, the prize of happier years, will 
not avail thee now. 

29. Venture to be wise. 

30. I purpose coming home at ten o'clock. 

31. To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the 
opinion of the world, and to be wise in the sight of the 
Creator, are three things so different as rarely to coin- 
cide. 

32. It is vain to pretend ignorance of the fact. 

33. He gave me a letter to read. 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 137 

34. Who are you? 

35. The neglect to lay down in distinct terms the oppo- 
sition between the true and the false has been the occa- 
sion of the generally unintelligible character of meta- 
physics. 

36. There is a pleasure in being alone after the excite- 
ment of much society. 

37. The world deals good-naturedly with good-natured 
people. 

38. The snow melts, the sun having risen. 

39. The sea appears smooth. 

40. The desire to go abroad is common to all Ameri- 
cans. 

41. She stoops to conquer. 

42. The dividends are paid twice a year. 

43. To be, contents his natural desire. 

44. What ! art thou still at it? 

45. How far that little candle throws his beams! 

46. By and by it grew very hot. 

47. John ordered them to return the hat. 

48. The messenger was bidden to run quickly. 

49. Give us this day our daily bread. 

50. How do you do? 

51. Come here. 

52. The chief art of learning is to attempt but little at 
a time. 

53. He paid a hundred dollars for it. 

54. Is it worth your while to go? 

55. The land was ploughed by the farmer in Septem- 
ber, under great difficulties and in a workmanlike man- 
ner, with a team of ten yoke of oxen. 

56. The wall is three feet high. 

57. A man is a man for all that. 

58. There is a man here wishing to see you. 



138 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

59. The State of New York has a population of over 
5,000,000. 

60. A man has no more right to say an uncivil thing 
than to act one. 

61. From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 

Leaps the live thunder. 
61. Oliver Twist's ninth birthday found him a pale, 
thin child, somewhat diminutive in stature, and decidedly 
small in circumference. 

SYNTHESIS. 

63. Write three sentences ; one having a compound 
subject, one having a compound predicate, one having a 
compound object. 

64. Write a sentence containing an absolute phrase. 

65. Construct a sentence, having a noun in apposition 
to the object. 

66. Construct a sentence having a phrase in apposition 
to the subject. 

67. Write a sentence having a participle as a modifier 
of the subject. 

68. Write a sentence having a prepositional phrase 
modified by an adverb. 

69. Construct a sentence having a phrase in apposition 
to the object. 

70. Construct a sentence having a participial phrase as 
an attribute. 

71. Write a sentence having a participle used only as 
a noun. 

72. Write a sentence containing a participle used merely 
as an adjective. 

73. Compose a sentence having a participial phrase 
used absolutely. 

74. Write a sentence containing a participial phrase, 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 39 

the participle having an object modified by a participial 
phrase. 

75. Write a sentence having the active form and 
change it to the passive form. 

76. Write a sentence and let the subject be modified 
by a prepositional phrase,, the principal word of which is 
modified by a prepositional phrase. 

77. Compose a sentence containing all the parts of 
S])eech, underscore each and write its name above it. 

78. Write a sentence containing an infinitive used as 
an adverbial modifier. 

79. Write a sentence containing an infinitive used as 
an adjective modifier. 

80. Construct a sentence having an infinitive as a sub- 
ject. 

81. Construct a sentence having an infinitive used as 
an attribute. 

82. Compose a sentence having an infinitive phrase 
used as the object of a preposition. 

83. Construct a sentence having an infinitive phrase 
for its subject and an infinitive phrase for its attribute. 

84. Compose a sentence having an infinitive phrase 
used in apposition. 

85. Write a sentence containing an infinitive phrase 
used independently. 

86. Write a sentence containing a participle, and 
change it into an infinitive. 

87. Construct a sentence containing an infinitive, and 
change it into a participial phrase. 

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

88. Define a clause. Give an example. 

89. Classify sentences according to the following 
scheme : 



140 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 



Sentences 



According to Form -J 
According to Thought -J 



90. Define a principal clause. A subordinate or de- 
pendent clause. Give an example of each. 

91. When are clauses coordinate? Illustrate. 

92. What is an adjective clause? What an adverbial 
clause? What a noun clause? Give an example of each ? 

93. What is a complex sentence? Give an example of 
one. 

94. What is a compound sentence? Give an example 
of one. 

95. Give a list of conjunctions used to connect inde- 
pendent clauses. 

ANALYZE THESE SENTENCES. 

96. Wherever I go, I hear the same story. 

97. He took care to place himself where he could see 
all that went on. 

98. I will do it as often as you wish. 

99. She is older than she looks. 

100. The mail train, which usually is so punctual, was 
late yesterday. 

101. The captain, who is a man that I can trust, told 
me so last night. 

102. Tell me not, in mournful numbers, 
Life is but <m empty dream. 

103. I have said what I have said. 

104. How far I have succeeded is for you to judge. 

105. Let me know when you can come. 

106. What he lacks in knowledge, he supplies by self- 
confidence. 

107. What can't be cured must be endured. 

108. She loved me for the dangers I had passed* 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 141 

109. And e'en while fashion's brightest arts decoy, 
The heart, distrusting, asks if this be joy. 

110. He ran so fast that I could not overtake him. 

111. He is as heavy as I am. 

112. Though He slay me, yet will I put my trust in 
Him. 

113. Does such a scholar as he is read books? 

114. I will lend you the book if I can find it. 

115. He did as much as he could, but he did not do as 
much as he wished to do. 

116. " Once as I told in glee 

Tales of the stormy sea, 
Soft eyes did gaze on me, 
Burning yet tender; 
And as the white stars shine 
On the dark Norway pine, 
On that dark heart of mine 
Fell their soft splendor." 

117. He never lends a pencil, although he has a dozen. 

118. Let him that is without blame cast the first stone. 



SYNTHESIS. 

119. Compose a sentence containing a substantive 
clause used as a subject. 

120. Compose a sentence having a substantive clause 
used as a direct object. 

121. Compose a sentence having a substantive clause 
used as an attribute. 

122. Write a sentence containing two coordinate ad- 
jective clauses. 

123. Compose a sentence containing an adverb clause. 

124. Write a sentence containing an adverb clause and 
change the adverb clause to a prepositional phrase. 



142 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

125. Write a compound sentence and change it into a 
complex sentence. 

126. Write a simple sentence having its object modi- 
fied by a participial phrase and change the phrase into an 
adjective clause. 

127. Expand the participial phrase in the following 
sentence into an adverb clause, and then expand the 
phrase into an adjective clause: A fool, holding his peace, 
is counted wise. 

128. Write a sentence containing a clause in direct 
quotation and then change it to indirect quotation. 

129. Illustrate the number of ways you can use the 
word playing as a different part of speech. 

130. What words are used to introduce noun clauses? 

NOUN AND PRONOUN. 

131. Write the plural of wharf, axis, focus, cherub, 
phenomenon. 

132. What distinction is made in the use of the rela- 
tives toho, which, and that ? 

133. Write the declension of ox, child, knife, woman. 

134. What are the plurals of radius, parenthesis, 
brother-in-law. 

135. Give the possessive plural form of motto, lady, 
thou, ma)?. 

136. Give the correlatives of lad, empress, czar, Francis. 

137. Tell how the plural of each of these words is 
formed : elegy, church, piece. 

138. Define or describe each of the following terms: 
person, number, gender, case. 

139. Give a definition of each kind of jDronoun. 

140. Write the feminine of nephew, hero, baron, bene- 
factor, man-servant. 

141. Write the masculine of belle, filly, lass a nun, roe, 
witch, hind, arbitratrix. 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 43 

142. Give the rule for forming the plural of each of 
these nouns : lady, valley, cargo. 

1-43. Write ten nouns having no plural. 

144. Write ten nouns having no singular. 

145. Indicate the plural of -\-, 2, t. 

146. Write ten nouns having the same form in both 
numbers. 

147. When is thou used? 

148. What is a collective noun? What an abstract 
noun? Give three examples of each. 

149. What is an antecedent? Give an illustration. 

150. What pronouns indicate gender? 

151. Give all the forms in which wlw is compounded. 

152. Which of the relative pronouns are indeclinable? 

153. Change these to the possessive form: The rigging 
of the man-of-war. The yacht of the Prince of Wales. 
At the store of Hawkins & Jones. 

ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB. 

154. Define an adjective. An adverb. 

155. What are pronominal adjectives? 

156. Write a sentence in which a noun shall be used as 
an adverb. 

157. How are adverbs often formed from adjectives ? 

158. Compare had, beautiful, heavy, many. 

159. Give the two positives of worse and those of most. 

160. Compare three adjectives so as to show three 
methods of comparison. 

161. What is the general usage of an before a word be- 
ginning with an h sound? 

162. Are an and a the same or different articles? 

163. Name several adjectives that do not admit of com- 
parison. 



144 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 



THE VERB. 

164. Define a verb. 

165. Classify verbs, using the following scheme : 
'According to 

Transition 

< According to 
Formation of Principal Parts 

166. Define each class, and give examples. 

167. To what class does the verb be belong? 

168. What is meant by the princijml parts of a verb? 

169. What is an auxiliary verb? 

170. Name the voices of verbs, and define each. 

171. Define mood or mode. 

172. Name the moods or modes and define each. 

173. What is tense? 

174. Name and define the tenses. Give examples of 
each. 

175. What signs have the tenses? 

176. What is conjugation? 

177. Do you know thoroughly the conjugation of the 
verb to be ? Write it out. 

178. What is meant by the synopsis of a verb? 

179. Write the synopsis of the verb love. 

180. Name the infinitives and give an example of each. 

181. Give the principal parts of read, bid, drink, chide, 
choose, shim, hang, lay, lie, swim, take, thrive, tear, 
tread, work. 

182. Change the third person singular present indica- 
tive active of the verb bring to the corresponding passive 
form. 

183. Give the third persons pluperfect indicative active 
of the verb go. 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. I45 

184. How is a verb conjugated negatively? 

185. How is the passive voice of a verb formed? 

186. What are the signs of the modes? 

187. Give ten verbs that take the infinitive after them 
without the preposition to. 

SYNTAX. 

188. Define syntax. 

189. What is meant by government? What by agree- 
ment? Give an illustration of each. 

190. Compose sentences to illustrate the following 
rules : 

Two or more singular subjects taken separately require 
the verb to be in the singular. 

191. Collective nouns, though singular in form, take a 
plural verb if the predicate applies to objects taken indi- 
vidually. 

192. The verb be has the same case after it as before 
it. 

193. When a verb has two or more subjects connected 
by ' ' and/' it must agree with them in the plural. 

194. Write this sentence four times, giving only a dif- 
ferent position in each, and state exactly what each sen- 
tence means. " Only he mourned for his brother. " 

195. State the difference in meaning of et A portrait of 
my father," and "A portrait of my father's." 

196. Supply the omitted word or words in each sen- 
tence, and give reasons for the form you use: 

Either you or I ... in the wrong. 

If you were here you would find two or three in the 
parlor after dinner wh — you would say, passed their 
afternoons very agreeably. 

Hoping that I . . . soon hear from you, believe me, 
yours truly. 



I46 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 



CRITICISM. 

Change these sentences to correct syntax, and justify 
in each instance your correction: 

197. It is time we went. 

198. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that 
of fisherman. 

199. He invited my brother and I to see his library. 

200. She would not accept the jewels, though she was 
offered them. 

201. Bad men they often honor virtue at the bottom of 
their hearts. 

202. They were troubled with the mosquitoes. 

203. The book was read by the old and young. 

204. I received a letter from my cousin, she that was 
here last week. 

205. Where are the Martins? I believe that is them 
coming behind us. 

206. Those kind of injuries we need not fear. 

207. The Scriptures are more valuable than any writ-, 
ings. 

208. She bought a new pair of gloves. 

209. Every one must judge of their own feelings. 

210. This is the student who I gave the book to. 

211. We knew it to be he. 

212. It could not have been her. 

213. Who is there? It's me. Who's me? 

214. Now remember this is between you and I. 

215. I do not doubt but that it is true. 

216. The clergyman read the two first stanzas of the 
hymn. 

217. The velvet feels smoothly. 

218. I recollect you was his advocate in that important 
trial. 

219. I feel badly. 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 147 

220. In the camp of Israel every man and every woman 
were numbered. 

221. There are a class of men who never take fore- 
thought. 

222. I had wrote to him the day before. 

223. The books were lain upon the table. 

224. She dare not oppose it. 

225. Circumstances alters cases. 

226. He need not trouble himself. 

227. What have become of your cousins? 

228. By laying abed in the morning one loses a tenth 
part of one's time. 

229. Lay down and rest. 

230. There goes Mr. and Mrs. Smith. 

231. How is your father and mother? 

PARSING. 

Parse the italicized words in the following sentences: 

232. Romans, countrymen, and lovers! hear me for my 
cause, and be silent that you may hear; believe me for 
mine honor, and have respect unto mine honor, that you 
may believe; censure me in your wisdom, and awake your 
senses that you may the better judge. 

233. The illustrated library of travel, exploration, and 
adventure has been the means of furnishing the public 
with much information bearing upon geography, history, 
and customs of distant and partially unknown countries. 

234. John chased the man a mile, called him a knave, 
and struck him a blow. 

235. There were five men there. 

236. ' ' I still had hopes, for pride attends us still. 
Amidst the swains to show my book-learned skill.-" 

237. I must pause till it come bach to me. 

238. I will run as far as God has any ground. 

239. The door stands open. 

240. The ship went ashore just below Barnegat. 



48 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 



jfor Sccontr @fratre. 

1. Name eight different kinds of adverb clauses. 

2. Give a list of conjunctions used to connect subor- 
dinate clauses to principal clauses. 

3. Name five ways in which a noun clause may be 
used. 

ANALYZE THESE SENTENCES. 

4. Nero was fiddling when Rome was burning. 

5. As I am a living man here comes my brother. 

6. Having first procured our guides, we began the as- 
cent of the mountain. 

7. 'Tis sweet to hear the watch-dog's honest bark. 

8. A wise ruler does not subject a good subject to un- 
necessary taxation. 

9. What did Henry do? 

10. The fact that man's powers are limited is not suffi- 
ciently recognized. 

11. He was generally master of what he undertook. 

12. The ship was loaded and sailed from port. 

13. The ship, when it had been loaded, sailed from port. 

14. The ship which had been loaded sailed from port. 

15. How dear to my heart are the scenes of my child- 
hood. 

16. Is it worth while for us to go? 

17. In the same year, Hudson's ship, the Half Moon, 
was also sent to the Hudson river on a like errand by the 
company. 

18. How many trees are there in that lot? 

19. Either keep still or go out. 

20. That fortune favors the brave is often proved true. 

21. He whistled as he went. 

22. In speaking of Smith's farm, mine is twenty acres 
larger. 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 1 49 

23. The people elected Garfield President. 

24. He painted the house yellow. 

25. As I am pressed for time, I can say no more at 
present. 

26. Ask the carpenter to plane the board true. 

27. Mark, now, how a plain tale shall put you down. 

28. In the late war the soldiers called the stars and 
stripes "Old Glory." 

29. He that fights and runs away, 
May live to fight another day. 

30. He worked his hand sore. 

31. Sir Isaac Newton drew close to the grate in which 
a fire had just been kindled. 

32. The success was as great as he expected. 

33. He was so successful that he was able to retire from 
business. 

34. Withdraw thy feet from thy neighbor's house, lest 
he be weary of thee and so hate thee. 

35. The harvest is abundant, therefore we will rejoice 
and be glad. 

36. The daughter is as old as the mother was twenty 
years ago. 

37. Such neighbors as these neighbors have shown 
themselves to be, are neighbors indeed. 

38. The North River was called the Hudson in honor 
of its discoverer, and the South Eiver was called the Dela- 
ware in honor of Lord De La War, one of the original 
proprietors of that region. 

39. A fort once stood where we are now standing. 

40. I should call her a simpleton. 

41. Plant the seeds deep in the ground. 

42. He was elected chairman of the meeting. 

43. The captain of the ship anchored her just below 
the pier. 

44. The red-man wondered what awful voice was 



150 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

speaking amid the wind that roared through the tree- 
tops. 

45. Napoleon ordered that a part of the soldiers should 
act as prisoners. 

46. Fishes can live only in water. 

47. And straightway he constrained the disciples to 
enter into a boat, and to go before him unto the other 
side. 

48. If thou be wise, thou shalt be w T ise for thyself. 

49. For Herod had laid hold on John, and bound him, 
and put him in prison for the sake of Herodias, his 
brother Philip's wife. 

50. He will come, provided he receives my letter. 

51. The true monarchs of every country are those 
whose sway is over thought and emotion. 

52. He called for me, for I was to go with him. 

53. I said that I laid down the money to pay the bill. 

54. If I do go, will he stay, until I come back? 

55. All the triumphs of truth and genius over preju- 
dice and power, in every country and in every age, have 
been the triumphs of Athens. 

56. To appear discouraged is the way to become so. 

57. Wait just a moment. 

58. He was wonderfully active, considering his age. 

59. It is just about a year since I saw what was doing 
there. 

60. Ye shall not eat of it lest ye die.' 

61. Where'er her troubled path may be, 
The Lord's sweet pity with her go. 

62. I do not care whether he comes or not. 

63. He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

64. Allowing all this, there is yet something to be said 
in his favor. 

b5. There shall not be left one stone upon another, that 
shall not be thrown down. 
9 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 151 

66. Except these abide in the ship, ye cannot be saved. 

67. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme grows. 

68. Defer not till evening what morning may and 
should accomplish. 

69. The young man received ten thousand dollars to 
begin the world with. 

70. The mill will never grind 
With the water that is past. 

71. He extolled his wares beyond their worth. 

72. John is very foolish to take such a thing to heart. 

73. To lie down on the pillow after a day spent in 
temperance, how sweet is it! 

74. I know not what course others may take, but as for 
me, give me liberty or give me death. 

SYNTHESIS. 

75. Compose a sentence having an adverbial clause of 
concession. 

76. Write a sentence containing a substantive clause 
used in apposition. 

77. Compose a sentence containing an adverb clause of 
reason. 

^8. Compose a sentence containing an adverb clause, 
and change the adverb clause into an infinitive phrase. 

79. Write a simple sentence containing an infinitive 
phrase and change the infinitive phrase into an adverb 
clause. 

80. Illustrate subject phrase, object phrase, subject 
clause, object clause. 

81. Write a sentence containing which in the plural, 
nominative case. 

UPON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

82. Give two plurals, and the meaning of each,, to these 
nouns: Brother, die, index. 



152 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

83. Write the possessive plural of money, 'penny, talis- 
man. 

84 What two distinct offices are performed by the rela- 
tive pronoun. 

85. When a direct object, what is the position of a rela- 
tive pronoun with reference to the verb. 

8G. Write the possessive plural of sister-in-law, mouse- 
trap, hanger-on, 

87. Write the corresponding masculine or feminine to 
these nouns : Maid, earl, niece, sir, papa, heir, emperor, 
marquis, testator, duke, Joseph, Charles, widoio, nymph. 

88. Write the plurals of these : sir, madam, bandit, 
radius, analysis, stratum, genus. 

89. Write correctly in words ^£y. 

90. How can the adjective be distinguished from the 
noun? 

91. Give the adjectives that have a plural. 

92. What are the different offices of that? 

93. Classify and define cardinals, numerals, ordinals. 

94. Give a classification of adverbs. 

95. Give an example of the comparison of adjectives by 
prefixes and by suffixes. 

96. What is a compound verb? 

97. Which do you regard the better term, and why? 
Mood or mode. 

98. How are the person and number of verbs determ- 
ined? 

99. Give an example of a verb in the strong conjugation 
and of one in the weak conjugation. 

100. Write the entire conjugation of the verb have. (A 
test question.) 

101. What tense must be used to denote that a certain 
event will precede some other event referred to? 

102. Does the object of a verb influence its person and 
number? 



GRAMMAR FOR SB CO XI) GRADE. 



'53 



mQo. Give the principal parts of mulct, shear, Leaf, 
teethe. 

104. What is a defective verb? What is a redundant 
verb? Give an example of each. 

105. Define a copulative verb. 

106. What is an impersonal verb? 

107. What is meant when we speak of a finite verb? 

108. Write the passive voice of the verb to eat. (Mere- 
ly a test question.) 

109. In the formation of the future tenses what dis- 
tinction should be made in the use of the auxiliaries shall 
and will? 

110. W r hat are the compound prepositions? 

111. Give some phrases used as prepositions. 

112. Give several prepositions derived from verbs. 

113. Classify conjunctions and define each class, giving 
examples. 

114. State the difference between a conjunctive adverb 
and a conjunction. 

115. Compose sentences using that as a relative pro- 
noun, as an adjective pronoun, as a definitive adjective, 
as a conjunction. 

116. Compose sentences using but as a conjunction, as 
an adjective, as an adverb, and as a preposition. 

SYNTAX. 

Compose sentences to illustrate the following rules: 

117. Two or more singular subjects taken separately 
require the verb to be in the singular. 

118. A noun or pronoun is put absolute in the nomina- 
tive when its case depends on no other word. 

119. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
number, gender, and person. 

120. When an adjective denoting one or more than one 



154 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

is joined to a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree 
in number. 

121. In using the superlative degree, be careful to make 
the latter term of comparison, or term introduced by of, 
include the former. 

122. When the comparative degree is employed, the 
latter term of comparison should never include the former. 

123. When a verb has nominatives of different persons 
or numbers, connected by or or nor, it must agree with 
that which is placed next to it. 

124. When a possessive noun is followed by an explana- 
tory word, the possessive sign is added to the explanatory 
word only. But if the explanatory word has several mod- 
ifiers, or if there are more explanatory words than one, 
the principal word takes the sign. 

125. Use an, a, or the before each of two or more con- 
nected adjectives only when these modify different nouns 
expressed or understood. 

CRITICISM. 

Change these sentences to correct syntax, and justify 
in each instance your correction: 

126. Him being on deck, we gave three cheers for the 
good ship. 

127. Will you go to the President's this evening? 

128. This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton. 

129. This is my father's brother's daughter's house. 

130. Thee who he had most injured he had the greatest 
reason to love. 

131. You will never have another such a chance. 

132. The Alleghany and the Monongahela rivers form 
the Ohio. 

133. I rejoice that there is another and a better world. 

134. The water is about six fathom deep. 

135. Henry or William will give us their company. 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 



55 



130. Those two boys must not speak to one another. 

137. Bismarck is greater than any German statesman. 

138. She is such an extravagant woman. 

139. Have you Webster and Worcester's Dictionary? 

140. Adam was Cain's and Abel's father. 

141. I went to Smith's, Brown's and Company's store. 

142. I owe thee a heavy debt, and will you not allow 
me to repay it ? 

143. Here is a pupil which possesses fine talents. 

144. Virtuous effort and not depraved genius win the 
prize. 

145. The fragrant myrtle and sweet-scented woodbine 
renders the air in this spot truly delicious. 

146. Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden 
mediocrity. 

147. In that transaction their safety and welfare is 
most concerned. 

148. When will we three meet again? 

149. I intended to have been at home when you called. 

150. The flowers smell very sweetly and look beautifully. 

151. Did you expect to have heard so poor a sermon? 

152. By letters of the third of May, we learn that the 
West India fleet arrived safely. 

153. There were a great number of spectators. 

154. What sounds have each of the vowels? 

155. The committee have attended to their business. 

156. My flesh and my heart faileth. 

157. High pleasure and luxurious living begets satiety. 

158. We had laid on the ground all night. 

159. She is as peevish as a setting hen. 

160. After laying a while in this position, he raised up. 

161. The man could neither read or write. 

162. Which of the group of men is the taller. 

163. An account of all the great events in all parts of 
the world are given in the daily papers. 



156 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

164. He is a man of remarkable clear intellect. 

165. Either you or I are in the way. 

166. That is seldom or ever the case. 

167. The following treatise, together with those that 
accompany it, were written several years ago. 

168. That is either a man or woman's voice. 

169. Of all the other qualities of style, clearness is the 
most important. 

PARSING. 

Parse the italicized words in the following sentences: 

170. But when thou doest thine alms, let not thy left 
hand knoiv what thy right hand doetli. 

171. On parent knees, a naked, neio-born child, 
Weeping, thou sat'st while all around thee smiled; 
So live that, sinking in thy last long sleep, 
Thou then may'st smile, wh He all around thee weep. 

172. I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the 
sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding 
a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst 
the great ocean of truth lay beyond. 

173. From scenes like these old Scotia's grandeur 

springs, 
That makes her loved at home, revered abroad; 
Princes and lords are but the breath of kings, 
" An honest man's the noblest work of God." 

174. Like the leaves of the forest when summer is 

green, 
That host with their banners at sunset are seen. 

175. Whence come those shrieks, so wild and shrill, 
That cut like blades of steel the air, 
Causing the creeping blood to chill 

With the sharp cadence of despair. 

176. When I was young, I thought of nothing else but 
pleasure. 






GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 1 57 

177. Ye know the heart of a stranger, seeing ye were 
strangers in the land of Egypt. 

178. Even a fool when he holdeth his j>eace is counted 
wise. 

179. The more you struggle, the worse you are off. 

180. They are people worth speaking with. 



tfov ffitBt CKratrtr. 

1. What is a factitive predicate? Give two examples. 

2. Can subordinate clauses ever be co-ordinate clauses? 
Give an illustration. 

3. Is there any difference between a noun clause and a 
substantive clause? Verify your answer by illustrations. 

4. What is a compound-complex sentence? 

ANALYZE THESE SENTENCES. 

5. The wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest 
the sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh 
nor whither it goeth. 

6. No one who is a lover of money, a lover of pleasure, 
and* a lover of glory, is likewise a lover of mankind ; but 
only he who is a lover of virtue. 

7. You stood still while he advanced : for neither of 
you knew what ought to be done. 

8. Had I been as cold-hearted as I sometimes thought 
myself, nothing would have interested me more than to 
witness the play of passions that must thus have been 
evolved. 

9. I laid the money which I paid, on the counter, as I 
said. 

10. Whither thou goest I will go ; and where thou 
lodgost I will lodge. 



158 GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 

11. I have sinned in that I have betrayed the innocent 
blood. 

12. And forever and forever, 

As long as the river flows, 
As long as the heart has passions, 
As long as life has woes ; 

The moon and its broken reflection 
And its shadows shall appear, 

As the symbol of love in heaven, 
And its wavering image here. 

13. And we did think it writ down in our duty to let 
you know it. 

14. Unless you are certain that he is there, you should 
not set out. 

15. He erected the wall in order that he might stop 
trespassing. 

16. What I have done remains to be seen. 

17. The more we live, more brief appear 
Our life's succeeding stages. 

18. It is not ours to separate 

The tangled skein of will and fate, 

To show what metes and bounds should stand 

Upon the soul's debatable land, 

And between choice and Providence 

Divide the circle of events. 

19. Every individual has a place to fill in the world, 
and is important in some respect, whether he chooses to 
be so or not. 

20. If, as poets are wont to whine, the outward world 
was cold to Shakespeare, its biting air did but trace itself 
in loveliest frostwork of fancy on the many windows of 
that self-centred and cheerful soul. 



GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 



SYNTHESIS. 



159 



21. Compose a sentence having an adjective clause 
containing an adverbial clause. 

22. Write a sentence containing an adverb clause, and 
change the adverb clause into an adjective clause. 

23. Compose a sentence having an independent clause 
joined in the sentence without a conjunction. 

24. Write a compound-complex sentence. 

25. Illustrate the different positions an adjective 
clause may occupy in a sentence. 

26. Illustrate the different positions an adverb clause 
may occupy. 

UPON THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 

27. Give an outline for parsing a noun. 

28. In what points does the pronoun agree with the 
noun? 

29. Give an expression containing other as a pronoun. 

30. What are reflective pronouns? 

31. Upon what is gender in the English language 
based? 

32. Distinguish between the co-ordinating and re- 
strictive relative pronouns. 

Examine this definition of gender, and express an 
opinion upon it. Gender is that attribute which the 
noun derives from the presence or absence of sex, in that 
which the noun names. 

33. Give an example of an adverb occupying the place 
of an adjective. 

34. In what respect do the adjective and the adverb 
agree? In what respect do they differ? 

35. What are multiplicatives? Give three examples. 

36. What words originally adverbs are now called re- 
sponsives? 



i6o 



GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 



37. In what way are adjectives formed from adjec- 
tives ? 

38. What adverbs are used as prepositions? 

39. What are pronominal adverbs, and why so called? 

40. What is the difference between a pronominal ad- 
jective and a pronoun? 

41. Write a sentence containing what used as an ad- 
verb; a sentence containing but used as an adverb. 

42. Which of these is the most logical definition of a 
rerb? Give reasons for your answer: 

(a) " A verb is a part of speech that makes an affirma- 
tion." 

(b) "A verb is a word, or phrase, which, in a sen- 
tence, has the use or office of a predicate or affirmer." 
(" A predicate or affirmer is a tvord or a phrase, naming 
the action, and used to ash or declare something concern- 
ing the subject") 

(c) " A verb is a word that asserts or declares." 

(d) " A verb is a word that asserts action, being, or 
state of being." 

(e) " A verb is a word that asserts." 

43. Point out in what way transitive verbs become in- 
transitive. Give three examples. 

44. Is the infinitive properly a mode ? Give reasons 
for your answer. 

45. Which of these sets of names do you deem best for 
the tenses, and why? — Present, Imperfect, Future, Per- 
fect, Pluperfect, Future-perfect. — Present, Past, Future, 
Present-perfect, Past-perfect, Future-perfect. — Present, 
Past, Future, Prior-present, Prior-past, Prior-future. 

46. What distinction would you make between the 
past-participle drank, and the form drunk? Between 
hanged and hung ? 

47. What difference is there between the infinitive and 
a participle? Illustrate. 



GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. !6i 

48. Give an example of a verb-phrase. 

49. Of what modes was the potential formed? 

50. What is a reflexive verb? Give an example. 

51. What difference in meaning is there between this 
passage as given in the Authorized and in the Ee vised 
version of the New Testament? — 

"If thou he the Son of God, command that these 
stones be made bread." 

" If thou art the Son of God, command that these 
stones become bread." 

52. What were the original meanings of shall and will? 

53. When is ought present and when past? 

54. What tenses have the verbs in these sentences? 
Spring is come. Winter was gone. 

55. Write a verb in the present conditional indicative, 
and in the subjunctive present. 

56. What is meant by calling the preposition a word of 
relation? 

57. Wherein do conjunctions and prepositions agree, 
and wherein do they differ? 

58. Mention several phrases serving as conjunctions. 

59. What demonstrative adjective is used as a conjunc- 
tion? 

60. Mention words that are both conjunctions and ad- 
verbs. How can it be known, in each case, whether a 
word is an adverb or a conjunction? 

61. Distinguish between the uses of (r and oh. 

62. Compose sentences using what as a relative pro- 
noun, as an interrogative pronoun, as a definitive adjec- 
tive, as an adverb, and as an interjection. 

SYNTAX. 

Change these sentences to correct syntax, and justify 
in each instance your correction. 

63. They are both alike. 



^2 GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 

64. I have quite a number of them. 

65. My brother, my sister, and myself will come. 

66. Did mankind but love each other, it would be 
something. 

67. I wished really to know. 

68. I had rather not do it. 

69. If I am not mistaken the number is 26. 

70. I have compassion on the multitude because they 
continue with me three days. 

71. A hasty reading would not enable one to discover 
that this was an essay. 

72. Destitute of principle, he regarded neither his 
family, nor his friends, nor his reputation. 

73. When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune 
affect us, the sincerity of friendship is tested. 

74. The committee was divided in its opinions. 

75. Each of them in their turn receive the benefits to 
which they are entitled. 

76. Those things in the which I will appear unto thee. 

77. The atmosphere's being clear, and my sight good, 
I beheld the ship standing out to sea, 

78. The fact of me being a stranger to him does not 
justify his conduct. 

79. I would be delighted if you would go. 

80. What difference is there between " I would do it, 
if I were you," and "I should do it, if I were you"? 

81. What the difference between "I shall now pro- 
ceed to mention some of the most famous persons of that 
day," and " I will now proceed to mention some of the 
most famous persons of that day"? 

82. What the difference between " Shall you go to- 
mor™vw?" and " Will you go to-morrow?" 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 163 



ANSWERS TO GRAMMAR, THIRD GRADE. 

1. A sentence is the expression of a thought in words, 

2. The subject is that about which the statement is made. The 
predicate is that which is stated or asserted of the subject. 

3. Declarative: The city was taken by stratagem. Interrogative: 
What can tears avail? Imperative: Go ye out to meet him. 
Exclamatory : How fiercely the wind blows ! 

4. A phrase is a combination of words, not including a subject 
and predicate, having in a sentence the value of a single part of 
speech. Through the woods. 

5. The attribute or complement is the noun or adjective which 
completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. 

6. The direct object is that which receives the action of the verb 
without the help of any auxiliary word : He gave me the book. 

The indirect object is the noun or pronoun which is less directly 
affected by the action of the verb, and may be governed by a prepo- 
sition: He gave me the book. 

7. A word which limits the meaning of another word. 

8. The subject noun with all its modifiers: The boisterous winds 
of March rage angrily through the trees. The bare subject noun, as 
winds. The predicate verb with all its modifiers, as rage angrily 
through the trees. The bare verb, as rage. 

9. Words which determine the relation of phrases or sentences to 
one another. 

10. When annexed to another word and denotes the same person 
or thing. 

11. A word whose office is merely to begin a sentence in order to 
render it less abrupt: there, why, it. 

12. A noun is a name, A word which supplies the place of a 
noun. The part of speech which asserts. A word joined to a noun 
or pronoun to limit its application. A word used to modify a 
verb, an adjective, or an adverb. A word showing relation be- 
tween other words. A word used to connect words, phrases, or 
clauses. A word which expresses strong or sudden feeling. 

13. That which completes the predicate and names the object 
which receives the act : Fulton invented the steamboat. 

14. A form of the verb commonly ending in ing or ed, and used 
like a noun or adjective. 

15. A form of the verb denoting an action or state indefinitely, 
without the limitation of a subject ; generally preceded by to. 

16. The subject precedes the verb ; the transitive verb precedes 



164 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

its object ; the adjective precedes the noun. Natural order : 
This book is dedicated to my dear friend. Inverted order : To my 
dear friend is dedicated this book. 

17. ( Noun ( Prepositional 
Use -j Adjective Form \ Infinitive 

( Adverbial ( Participial 

18. Simple, declarative sentence containing an infinitive and a par- 
ticipial phrase. 

Subject, he 

Predicate, was predisposed 
Modifier of predicate, to think ill of all causes 
Modifier of causes, requiring many words 

19. Compound, imperative sentence. First clause— Tell me, my 
soul. 

Subject, thou (understood) 
Predicate, tell 
Indirect object, me 

Phrase in apposition with subject, my soul 
Interrogative clause — 
Subject, this 
Predicate, can be 
Predicate noun (complement), death 

20. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, they 

Predicate, shall be 

Attribute complement, abhorring 

Modifiers of complement: j Zall flesh 

21. Simple interrogative sentence. 

Subject, thou 

Predicate, wouldst demolish 

Object, leaf 

Modifiers of object: j "^ 

22. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, going 

( his 
Modifiers of subject: -J to England 

( at such a time 
Predicate, must have been 
Attribute complement, action 

Modifiers of complement: -j ^Lj;^, 

23. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, bird 

Modifiers of subject : j ^ ^ Mnd 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 



.65 



Predicate, is 

Attribute complement, worth 
Modifier of complement, two in the bush 

24. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, prisoner 

Modifier of subject, the j worn out by age and long con- 
participial phrase ( finement 
Predicate, was set 

Modifier of predicate, at last 

Attribute complement, free 

25. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, persisting 

Modifiers of subject ■A^^fL 



m in such 
Predicate, was 
Attribute complement, height 

the 



Modifiers of complement: ^ - >, « 

26. Simple declarative sentence, with infinitive phrase used as sub. 

Subject, to prof ess regard while inwardly full of contempt 

Predicate, is 

Attribute complement, action 

Object of infinitive, regard 

^^hrase 111611111 ^ [ wMe ^^lyfull of contempt 

Modifiers of complement: ] ff a sycophant 

27. Simple declarative sentence with participial phrase. 

Subject, Saul 

Modifier of subject, the j yet breathing out threatenings 
participial phrase { and slaughter 

Predicate, went 

Modifier of predicate, unto the high-priest 

28. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, wreath 

(the 
Modifiers of subject: -j laurel 

( the prize of happier years 
Predicate, will avail 

Modifiers of predicate : \ ™* 

Direct object, thee. 

29. Simple imperative sentence, with an infinitive phrase. 

Subject, you (understood) 

Predicate, venture 

Object (a noun phrase), to be wise 

30. Simple declarative sentence, with a participial phrase. 

Subject, i" 



1 66 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

Predicate, purpose 

°& t phr I S) iCiPial PtoSe [ ~* *»» " fe » '<*** 

81. Simple declarative sentence with a compound subject. 

( to be wise in our own eyes 
Subjects: I to be wise in the opinion of the world 

( to be wise in the sight of the Creator 
Connective, and 
Predicate, are 
Attribute complement, things 



Modifiers of complement: -j Afferent 
Modifier of different, so 
Modifier of so, as rarely to coincide 

32. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, it 
Predicate, is 
Complement, vain 
Infinitive phrase explanatory { to pretend ignorance of the 
of the subject, j" fact 

33. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, gave 
Object, letter 

Modifier of object, a 

Modifier of predicate, (to) me 

Modifier of letter, to read 

34. Simple interrogative sentence. 

Subject, you 
Predicate, are 
Complement, who 

35. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, neglect 

I the 
Subject modifiers: -j to lay down in distinct terms the oppo- 
( sition between the true and the false 
Predicate, has been 
Complement, occasion 

( the 
Modifiers of complement: -j of the generally unintelligible 
( character of metaphysics 

36. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, pleasure 

Modifiers of subject : j ^ Mng ^ 

Predicate, is 

Modifier of pred., after the excitement of much society 
Expletive, there 

10 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 67 

37. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, world 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, deals 

Modifiers of >«**:{S£E2L*,«»i. 

38. Simple declarative sentence with an absolute phrase. 

Subject, mow 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, melts 

Absolute phrase, or pred. modifier, the sun having risen 

39. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, sea 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, appears 
Attribute complement, smooth 

40. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, desire 

Modifiers of subject : j g^ ^^ 

Predicate, is 
Complement, common 
Modifier of complement, to all Americans 

41. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, she 
Predicate, stoops 

Modifier of predicate, to conquer 
43. Simple declarative sentence. 
Subject, dividends 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, are paid 

Modifier of predicate, twice a year 
43. Simple declarative sentence. 
Subject, to be 
Predicate, contents 
Object, desire 



Modifiers of object: \ natuml 

44. Simple interrogative sentence with an independent element. 

Subject, thou 
Predicate, art 
Modifier of predicate, at it 
Modifier of " still 
Independent element, what 

45. Simple exclamatory sentence. 

Subject, candle 

Modifiers of subject, j^ 



168 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

Predicate, throws 
Object, beams 

Modifier of predicate, how far 

Modifier of object, his 

46. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, it 

Predicate, grew 

Complement, hot 
Modifier of complement, very 
Modifier of predicate, by and by 

47. Simple declarative sentence 

Subject, John 
Predicate, ordered 
Object, them 
Modifier of object, to return the hat 

48. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, messenger 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, was bidden 

Modifier of predicate, to run quickly 

49. Simple imperative sentence. 

Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, give 
Object, bread 

Modifiers of object: ' 



Modifiers of predicate: j gg™, 



50. Simple interrogative sentence. 

Subject, you 

Predicate, redundant form, do, do 
Modifier of predicate, how. , , 

51. Simple imperative sentence. 

Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, come 
Modifier of predicate, here. 

52. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, art. 

( the 
Modifiers of subject : -J chief 

( of learning 
Predicate, is 
Complement, the noun phrase, to attempt but little at a time 

53. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, paid 
Object, dollars 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 69 

Modifier of object, a hundred 
Modifier of predicate, for it 

u4. Simple interrogative sentence. 
Subject, it 

Infinitive explaining subject, to go 
Predicate, is 
Complement, worth 
while, noun in the objective following worth to denote 
value. 

55. Simple declarative sentence. 
Subject, land 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, was ploughed 

(by the farmer 



I in September 
\:\ u 



Modifiers of predicate: \ under great difficulties 

I in a workmanlike manner 
[ with a team of ten yoke of oxen 

56. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, wall 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, is 
Complement, high 

Modifier of complement, three feet 

57. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, man 
Predicate, is 
Complement, man 

Modifier of complement, a 

Modifier of predicate, for all that 

58. Simple declarative sentence, with participial phrase. 

Subject, man 

Modifiers of subject : \ ^^ tQ ^ ym 

Predicate, is 
Expletive, there 
Modifier of predicate: here 

59. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, State 

Modifiers of subject : j ** WmB M 

Predicate, has 
Object, population 

Modifiers of object : ] % fom , 5)000)000 



170 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

60. Simple declarative sentence, with two infinitive phrases in ap- 
position. 

Subject, man 

Modifier of subject, a 
Predicate, has 
Object, right 

( no more 
Modifiers of object: ■< to say an uncivil thing 
{ to act one 
than, conjunction expressing comparison and correlated 
to the adjective more 

61. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, thunder 

Modifiers of subject : j ^ 
Predicate, leaps 

Modifiers of nrpdioatp • \ f rom P eak to peak 
Moamtrs oi predicate . -j ammg m mUUng crags 

62. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, birthday 

Modifiers of subject: \ ™£ ™** 

Predicate, found 
Object, him. 
Modifier of object, child 

fa, pale, thin 
Modifiers of child :\ diminutive (m stature) (s<mwwjiaf) 
j small (in circumference) (decidedly) 
[^connective, and 

63. The Rhine and the Rhone rise in Switzerland. The tables of 
stone were cast to the ground and were broken. The enemy insulted 
our ambassador and our flag. 

64. How can we be happy, thou being absent ? 

65. He executed the prisoner, a humble citizen. 

66. Washington, the Father of his Country, lives in the hearts of 
his countrymen. 

67. Error, wounded, writhes with pain. 

68. He arrived much before the time. 

69. I saw Dr. Smith, the minister of the parish, last night. 

70. Life is the running of the race. 

71. Skating is a healthful exercise. 

72. The rising waters impeded our progress. 

73. The teacher absenting himself, there was no school. 

74. Finding myself suddenly deprived of the pleasures of the town, 
I grew melancholy. 

75. Dr. Livingstone explored a large part of Africa. A large part 
of Africa was explored by Dr. Livingstone. 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 171 

76. His speech against the repeal of the Union produced a deep 
impression. 

interjection article adjective noun verb adverb conj. 

77. Hurrah! the fearless soldiers hare fought bravely and 

prep, pronoun 

well far their country. 

78. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 

79. The victim to be sacrificed is a lamb. 

80. To be contents his natural desire. 

81. His duty is to go. 

82. He was about to depart. 

83. To fly from mankind is not to hate them. 

84. Bishop Jewel pronounced the clerical garb to be a stage dress. 

85. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 

86. Facing danger boldly is better than shunning it. To face 
danger boldly is better than to shun it. 

87. To ride on horseback is one of the pleasures of youth. Bid- 
ing on horseback is one of the pleasures of youth. 

88. A clause is a part of a sentence which contains a subject and 
predicate. " Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown." 

( Simple 
According to Form ■] Complex 



). Sentences 



( Compound 
f Declarative 



According to Thought MS 
[ Imperative 

90. The principal clause contains the principal subject and 
predicate, and forms an assertion by itself. A dependent clause is 
one which has the value of an adjective, an adverb, or a noun, and 
depends on the principal clause. " I will see" (principal) "if they 
are here" (subordinate). 

91. When they are of the same rank, either independent or 
dependent. I saw that the bird was wounded, and that it could not fly. 

92. One that limits a noun or pronoun. "Men that are selfish 
never win our esteem." One that qualifies a verb, adjective, or an 
adverb. " The mists flee away when the sun is risen." One which 
occupies the place of a noun. " That he has been rash is apparent 
to all." 

93. One which is composed of one independent clause and one 
or more dependent clauses. "I see the golden helmet, that shines 
far off like flame." 

94. One made up of independent clauses. " Every man desires 
to Urn long, but no man would be old." 

95. but, and, both, also, likewise, not only — but, now, not— but, 
either — or, whether — or, neither — nor, yet, still, only, therefore, where- 
fore, thus. 



\J2 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

96. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, / hear the 
same story. 

Subject, / 
Predicate, hear 
Object, story 

Modifier of predicate, wherever I go (a) 
Analysis of (a) : Subject, I 

Predicate, go 
Connective, wherever 

97. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, Re took 
care to place himself. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, took 
Object, care 
Modifier of object, to 'place himself 
Modifier of to place, where he could see all (a) 
Analysis of (a) : Subject, he 

Predicate, could scd 
Object, all 
Modifier of object, that went on (b) 
Connective, where 
Analysis of (b): Subject and connective, that 
Predicate, went 
Modifier of predicate, on 

98. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, I will do it. 

Subject, / 
Predicate, will do 
Object, it 
Modifier of predicate, often 
as modifies often 
Modifier of as, as you wish (a) 
Analysis of (a) : Subject, you 

Predicate, wish 
Connective, as 

99. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, She is older. 

Subject, she 
Predicate, is 
Complement, older 
Modifier of complement, than she looks 
Analysis: Subject, she 

Predicate, looks 
Connective, than 

100. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, The mail- 
train was late yesterday. 

Subject, train 

( the 
Modifiers of subject: -j mail 

( which usually is so punctual (a) 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 73 

Predicate, was 
Complement, late 
Modifier of complement, yesterday 
« Analysis of (a): Subject and connective, which 
Predicate, is 
Complement, punctual 

Modifiers of complement, \ ™ uall y 

( so 

101. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, The cap- 
tain told me so last night. 

Subject, captain 

Modifiers of subject: { ^ fy a ^ ihatIcan trust 

Predicate, told 
Object, me 

Modifiers of predicate: | "^ nigM 

Analysis of (a) : Subject and connective, who 
Predicate, is 
Complement, man 

(a 
Modifiers of comp. < that I can 
( trust (b) 
Analysis of (b): Subject, i" 

Pred., can trust 
Objected | aat 

102. Complex imperative sentence. Principal clause, Tell me not, 
in mournful numbers. 

Subject, you (understood) 

Predicate, tell 

Indirect object, me 

Direct object, life is but an empty dream (a) 

Modifiers of predicate: | ^mournful numbers 
Analysis of (a): Subject, life 
Predicate, is 
Complement, dream 

Modifiers of complement: \ ^Itvtv 

Modifier of complement and its 
modifiers, but 
Connective, that (understood) 

103. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, I have said. 

Subject, I 
Predicate, have said 
Object, what I have said (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject, / 

Predicate, have said 
Object and connective, what 



174 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

104. Complex declarative sentence, with a dependent clause incor- 
porated as subject. 

Subject, how far I have succeeded (a) 
Predicate, is 

Complement, for you to judge 
Analysis of (a): Subject, / 

Predicate, have succeeded 
Modifier of predicate, how far 

105. Complex imperative sentence. Principal clause, Let me krww. 

Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, let 
Object, me 
Modifier of me, {to) know 
Modifier of know, when you can come (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject, you 

Predicate, can come 



Modifier of pred. and ) , 
connective: \ 



106. Complex, declarative sentence. Principal clause, He supplies 
by self-confidence. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, supplies 

Modifier of predicate, by self-confidence 
Object, what he lacks in knowledge (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject, he 

Predicate, lacks 

Modifier of predicate, in knowledge 
Connective and Object, what 

107. Complex declarative sentence, with the dependent clause 
used as the subject. 

Subject, what can't be cured (a) 
Predicate, must be endured 
Analysis of (a): Subject, what 

Predicate, can be cured 
Modifier of predicate, not 

108. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, She loved 
me for the dangers. 

Subject, she 
Predicate, loved 
Object, me 
Modifier of predicate, for the dangers 
Modifier of dangers, (which) I had passed (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject, I 

Predicate, had passed 
Object and connective, which 

109. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, And the 
heart, distrusting, asks. 

Subject, heart 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 75 

Modifiers of subject: \ % TU8 ^ 

Predicate, asks 

tuwk^w ~f ^.xat. i even wMl e fashion's brightest 
Modifier of predicate:] arUdecoy \ a) 

Object, if this be joy (b) 

Analysis of (a): Subject, arts 

Modifiers of subject :{&$£; 

Predicate, decoy 

Modifiers of predicate, even while 
Connective, while 
Analysis of (b): Subject, this 
Predicate, be 
Complement, joy 
Conjunction, if 

110. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, He ran so 
fast. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, ran 
Modifier of predicate, fast 
Modifier of fast, so 
Modifier of so, that I could not overtake him (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject, I 

Predicate, could overtake 
Object, him 

Modifier of predicate, not 
Connective, that 



111. 


Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, He is as 


heavy. 






Subject, he 




Predicate, is 




Complement, heavy 




Modifier of complement, as 




Modifier of as, as lam (a) 




Analysis of (a): Subject, / 




Predicate, am 




Connective, as 




Complement, heavy (understood) 


112. 


Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, Yet will I 


put my 


' trust in htm. 




Subject, / 




Predicate, will put 




Object, trust 




Modifier of object, my 

(yet 
Modifiers of predicate : < in him 






( though he slay me (a) 



176 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

Analysis of (a): Subject, he 

Predicate, slay 
Object, me 
Connective, though 

113. Complex interrogative sentence. Principal clause, Does 

such a scholar read books. 
Subject, scholar 

Modifiers of subject: j ™ ch 

Modifier of such, as he is (a) 
Predicate, does read 
Object, books 
Analysis of (a): Subject, he 
Predicate, is 
Connective, as 

114. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, I will lend 
you the book. 

Subject, / 
Predicate, will lend 
Object, book 
Modifier of object, the 

Modifiers of predicate : \ M*™ «,,.,,, 
1 \ if I can find it (a) 

Analysis of (a): Subject, / 

Predicate, can find 
Object, it 
Connective, if 

115. Compound declarative sentence, composed of two complex 
clauses. Analysis of first complex. 

Subject of principal clause, he 
Predicate, did 
Object, much 
Modifier of object, as 
Modifier of as, as lie could (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject, he 

Predicate, could (do) 
Connective, as 
Analysis of second complex sentence. 
Subject of principal clause, he 
Predicate, did do 

Modifier of predicate, not 
Object, much 
Modifier of object, as 
Modifier of as, as he wished to do (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject, he 

Predicate, icished 

Modifier of predicate, to do 
Connective, as 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 77 

116 Compound declarative sentence, composed of two complex 
clauses. First complex cause includes the first four lines. Prin- 
cipal clause, Burning, yet tender, soft eyes did gaze on me once. 
Subject, eyes 

{burning 
yet tender 
soft 
Predicate, did gaze 

Modifiers of predicate : -j °^ 6 me 

Modifier of once, as I told in glee tales of the stormy sea (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject, / 

Predicate, told 
Object, tales 
Modifier of object, of the stormy sea 
Modifier of predicate, in glee 
Connective, ax 
Second complex clause. The principal clause is, And their soft 
splendor fell on that dark heart of mine. 
Subject, splendor 

Modifiers of subject: j ^, 

Predicate, fell 

!on that dark heart of mine 
as the white stars shine on the 
dark Norway pine (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject, stars 

Modifiers of subject : j ^ 

Predicate, shine 

Modifier of predicate: \ &£&, 

Connective, as 
The coordinate conjunction and combines the two main clauses. 

117. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, He never 
lends a pencil. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, lends 
Object, pencil 

Modifiers of predicate : j ™2ugh he Ms a dozen (a) 
Modifier of object, a 
Analysis of (a): Subject, he 

Predicate, has 
Object, dozen 

Modifier of object, a 
Connective, although 

118. Complex imperative sentence. Principal clause, Let him (to) 
cast the first stone. 



1 7 8 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE, 



Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, let 
Object, him 
Infinitive phrase modifier of subject, {to) cast the first stone 
Clause modifier of object, that is without blame (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject and connective, that 
Predicate, is 
Modifier of predicate, without blame 

119. That Julius Ccesar invaded Britain, is a historic fact. 

120. Plato taught that the soul is immortal. 

121. Tweed's defiant question was, What are you going to do 
about it ? 

122. Our best friends are they who tell us of our faults and who 
help us to mend them. 

123. Printing was unknown when Homer wrote the Iliad. 

124. We started when the sun rose. We started at sunrise. 

125. Thick mists are caused by the warm waters of the Gulf 
Stream, and these mists prevail in the neighborhood of Newfound- 
land. The thick mists which prevail in the neighborhood of New- 
foundland are caused by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. 

126. All the world heard the guns fired at Lexington. All the 
world heard the guns which were fired at Lexington. 

127. A fool is counted wise when he holds his peace. A fool who 
holds his peace is counted wise. 

128. He asked me, " Why do you weep?" He asked me why I 
wept. 

129. Playing is as necessary as working (noun). He was playing 
ball (verb). Playing-cards were introduced into Germany under 
Rudolph (adjective). 

130. That, what, when, if, how, why, who, where, whence, etc. 

131. Wharves, axes, foci, cherubim {cherubs), phenomena. 

132. Who is applied to persons; which, to things or a collection; 
that is used when both persons and things are meant, when the 
clause is restrictive, especially after the superlative degree; after 
who, same, very, no, all, each, any, every; the personal pronouns; the 
predicate nominative referring to it. 



133. 


Singular. 




Plural. 




Nom. 


Poss. Obj. 


Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


ox 


ox's ox 


oxen 


oxen's 


oxen 


child 


child's child 


children 


children's 


children 


knife 


knife's knife 


knives 


knives' 


knives 


woman 


woman's woman 


women 


women's 


women 


134. 


Radii, parentheses, brothers-in-law. 






135. 


Mottoes' , ladies', your or yours, men's 






136. 


Lass, emperor, czarina, F 


mnces. 







GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 79 

137. Elegies, changing y into ies ; churches, adding es , pieces, add- 
ing s. 

138. Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which de- 
notes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. dum- 
ber is that modification which denotes one thing or more than one. 
Qi uder is that modification which denotes sex. Case is the modifi- 
cation of a noun or pronoun which denotes its relation to the other 
words in the sentence. 

139. Personal pronouns distinguish the grammatical persons. A 
relative pronoun is one that relates to some preceding word or words, 
and connects clauses. An interrogative pronoun is one used to ask 
a question. An adjective pronoun is one that performs the offices of 
hoth an adjective and a noun. 

140. Niece, heroine, baroness, benefactress, maid-servant. 

141. Beau, colt, lad, monk, hart, wizard, stag, arbitrator. 

142. Ladies: "Common nouns ending in y, preceded by a con 
sonant, form the plural by changing y into ies." Valleys: Nouns 
ending in y, preceded by a vowel, add s to form the plural. Cargoes : 
Many nouns ending in 0, preceded by a consonant, add es. 

143. Pride, gold, copper, My, mud, specie, dust, flesh, peace, mortar. 

144. Bellows, tongs, shears, measles, victuals, politics, apocrypha, 
wages, nuptials, thanks. 

145. +'s, 2's, fs. 

146. Beer, sheep, swine, series, corps, means, grouse, trout, gross, 
apparatus. 

147. In sacred writings and in poetry. 

148. The name of many individuals taken together : assembly, 
family, flock. One that denotes a quality, action, or mode of being ; 
economy, murder, breadth. 

149. The substantive (noun, pronoun, phrase or clause) to which 
the pronoun refers. " I wished to return, which was impossible." 

150. Personal. 

151. Whoever, whosoever, whoso. 

152. That, which, what {which and that sometimes borrow the 
possessive whose). 

153. The man-of-war's rigging. The Prince of Wales' yacht, 
Hawkins and Jones' store. 

154. An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pronoun. 
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, adjective, or other ad- 
verb. 

155. Adjectives which may either accompany their nouns or rep- 
resent them understood. 

156. The soldiers went home on a furlough. 

157. By adding ly or s. 



180 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

158. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
bad worse worst 
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful 
heavy heavier heaviest 

many more most 

159. Ill or bad, much and many 

160. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
wise wiser wisest 

arrogant more (or less) arrogant most (or least) arrogant 

fore former foremost or first 

161. An is generally used before a word beginning with an h 
sound, if the accent is on the second syllable. 

162. The same, being an earlier and later form of the same word. 

163. Square, dead, hollow, four-footed, equal, two, round, right. 

164. A verb is a word that asserts. 

165. f According to j Transitive 
Verbs \ Transition \ Intransitive 

I According to Formation of j Regular 
[ Principal Parts / Irregular 

166. A transitive verb has an object, or requires one to complete 
the sense : The lightning struck the oak. An intransitive verb does 
not require an object to complete the sense : Martha sews. A regu- 
lar verb takes the ending ed to form its past : plant, planted. An 
irregular verb does not take ed to form the past : cling, clung. 

167. Irregular intransitive, sometimes called neuter. 

168. The present tense, the past indicative, the perfect participle, 
and sometimes the present participle. 

169. One that helps in the conjugation of other verbs. 

170. The active voice represents the subject as acting. The passive 
voice represents the subject as acted upon. 

171. That modification of the verb which expresses the manner of 
the assertion. 

172. The indicative asserts something as a fact. The subjunctive 
asserts something as a mere supposition, wish, or conclusion. The 
potential asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting 
or being. The imperative expresses command, entreaty, or permis- 
sion. (The infinitive mode is sometimes given. It expresses the act 
or state in a general way without affirming it of anything.) 

173. Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses time. 

174. The present expresses action or being -as present. The past 
expresses action or being as past. The future expresses action or 
being as future. The present-perfect expresses action or being as 
completed at the present time. The past perfect expresses action or 
state as completed at some past time. The future-perfect expresses 
action as completed by a certain future time. Present, / love; 
present-perfect, I have loved; future, I shall or will love; past, I 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 



I8l 



loved; past perfect, I had loved ; future-perfect, I shall or will havt 
lotted. 

175. Present, <nn, may, ran, must, do; past, might, cm/Id, would, 
should, did ; future, shall or irdl ; present-perfect, have; past-perfect, 
had; future-perfect, shall or will have. 

176. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms oi 
the verb to express voices, modes, tenses, persons, and numbers. 

177. For conjugation of be see any grammar. 

178. The regular arrangement of the forms of one number and 
person, in all The modes and tenses. 

179. See any grammar. 

180. Two, present and present-perfect : to love, to have loved. 



181. Present, 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


read 


read 


read 


bid 


bid or bade 


bidden or bid 


drink 


drank 


drank 


chide 


chid 


chidden or chid 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


skim 


skimmed 


skimmed 


hang 


hung or hanged 


hung or hanged 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lie 


lay 


lain 


swim 


swam or swum 


swum 


take 


took 


taken 


thrive 


throve 


thriven 


tear 


tore 


torn 


tread 


trod 


trodden or trod 


work 


icrought 


wrought 


182. Is brought. 






183. He had gone ; 


they had gone. 




184. By placing not after it or after the first auxiliary. 


185. By combining 


■ its perfect participle 


with be or some varia 


)f be. 







186. Subjunctive, if, though, lest, unless, provided ; Potential, may, 
can, must; Imperative, the second person, and do; Infinitive, to. 

187. Do, make, let, feel, dare, see, hear, bid, must, need. 

188. Syntax treats of the relations of words in sentences. 

189. The power that a word has to regulate the case of a noun or 
pronoun: " He came after me." The concord of two connected 
words of the same number, gender, case, or person : " The ma" who 
comes is he. 

190. Neither Mary nor her cousin was at our house. 

191. The congregation arise, step quietly out of their pews, and 
disperse. 

192. It is/. 



1 82 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

193. Her beauty, intelligence, and amiability were praised by all. 

194. Only he mourned for his brother, means no one else 
mourned. He only mourned for his brother, means he performed 
no other action in regard to his brother. He mourned only for his 
brother, means he mourned for no other person. He mourned for 
his only brother, means he had no other brother. 

195. "A portrait of my father," means a picture representing mj 
father's face. " A portrait of my father's," means any portrait in 
my father's possesssion. 

196. Either you or I am in the wrong. When two or more nomi- 
natives are connected by or or nor, the verb takes the person of the 
nominative next to it. 

If you were here you would find two or three in the parlor after 
dinner who, you would say, passed their afternoons very agreeably. 
Who, nominative case, subject of passed. 

Hoping that I shall soon hear from you, believe me, Yours truly. 
Shall expresses simple futurity. 

197. It is time we should go. Tenses must harmonize in a sen- 
tence. 

198. Peter, John, and Andrew's occupation was that of fisher- 
man. Common possession takes the sign but once— at the end. 

199. He invited my brother and me to see his library. Me is the 
object of the verb invited. 

200. She would not accept the jewels, though they were offered 
to her. The object (them) of the active verb becomes the subject 
(they) of the passive. 

201. Bad men often honor virtue at the bottom of their hearts. 
The pronoun they is redundant. 

202. They were troubled by the mosquitoes. By refers to the 
agent ; with implies accompaniment or manner. 

203. The book was read by the old and the young. The is needed 
to convey the idea that there are two classes, old and young. 

204. I received a letter from my cousin who was here last week. 
She is unnecessary. 

205. Where are the Martins ? I believe that is they coming be- 
hind us. Neuter verbs take the same case after them as before. 

206. That kind of injuries we need not fear. That must agree in 
number with kind. 

207. The Scriptures are more valuable than any other writings. 
Comparative degree calls for two objects of comparison. 

208. She bought a pair of new gloves. Adjectives precede the 
nouns they modify. 

205). Every one must judge of his own feelings. Singular antece- 
dent one must be followed by singular pronoun. 

210. This is the student to whom I gave the book. Preposition to 
governs the objective. 
11 



GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 1 83 

211. We knew it to be him. Him agrees in case (predicate objec- 
tive) with it. 

212. It could not have been she. SJie agrees in case with it (pre- 
dicate nominative). 

213. Who is there ? It's I. Who's I ? The pronouns in the pre- 
dicate agree in case with the subjects to which they refer. 

214. Now remember this is between you and me. Object of pre- 
position between is in the objective. 

215. I do not doubt that it is true. But is superfluous. The noun 
clause that it is true is the direct object of doubt. 

216. The clergyman read the first two stanzas of the hymn. 
There is but one first, but there maybe many groups of two stanzas. 

217. The velvet feels smooth. An adjective is needed when some 
quality of the subject is implied. 

218. I recollect you were his advocate in that important trial. 
The verb were must agree in person and number with its subject, 
you. 

219. I feel bad. Bad is an adjective belonging to I. 

220. In the camp of Israel every man and every woman was num- 
bered. " Two or more singular subjects taken individually, even if 
connected by and, require the verb to be singular." 

221. There is a class of men who never take forethought. Class 
is a singular collective noun, the individuals not being regarded. 

222. I had written to him the day before. The past-perfect tense 
is formed by had and the participle written. 

223. The books were laid upon the table. The intransitive verb 
lie cannot be used in the passive voice. 

224. She dares not oppose it. Dares must be singular to agree 
with she. 

225. Circumstances alter cases. A verb must agree in number 
with its subject. 

226. He needs not to trouble himself. Needs must agree with he. 

227. What has become of your cousins ? Has must agree with 
what. 

228. By lying abed in the morning, one loses a tenth part of one's 
time. The intransitive verb lie needed here. 

229. Lie down and rest. Same reason. 

230. There go Mr. and Mrs. Smith. " Two subjects connected 
by and and relating to different persons take a plurai verb." 

231. How are your father and mother ? Same reason. 

232. Noun, proper, 2nd person, plural, nomiDative case, inde- 
pendent. Silent, adjective, descriptive, common, not compared, 
modifies Bomans, countrymen, lovers. Believe, verb {believe, believed, 
believed), regular, transitive, active. Imperative mode, 2nd person, 
plural, agrees, with subject ye understood. Mine, pronoun, per- 



1 84 GRAMMAR FOR THIRD GRADE. 

sonal, 1st person, singular, possessive case (nom. /, poss. my ox mine, 
obj. me), and limits honor. Better, adverb of manner (positive well, 
comparative better, superlative best), comparative degree, and modi- 
fies judge. The is sometimes elegantly required before a compara- 
tive or superlative adverb to express emphasis. Judge, verb {judge, 
judged, judged) regular, intransitive, potential mode, present tense, 
2nd person, plural, and agrees with you. 

233. Library, common noun, collective, neuter gender, 3rd per- 
son, singular, nominative case, subject of has been. Means, com- 
mon noun, 3rd person, same form in both numbers, neuter gender, 
nominative predicate, in same case with library. Furnishing, com- 
mon noun, participial, 3rd person, singular, neuter gender, objective 
case, object of the preposition of. Public, common noun, collective, 
3rd person, singular, common gender, objective case, object of 
furnishing. Bearing is a participle from the irregular verb bear, 
bore, borne, intransitive, present, relates to information. Customs, 
common noun, 3rd person, plural, neuter gender, objective case, 
object of preposition upon. Unknown, adjective, descriptive, com- 
mon, not compared, limits countries. 

234. Mile, common noun, 3rd person, singular, neuter gender, 
objective case. Price, value, measure are "in the objective without 
a preposition. Knave, common noun, 3rd person, singular, mascu- 
line gender, objective case, in opposition -with him. Him, pronoun, 
personal, 3rd person, singular, masculine, declined nom. he, poss. 
his, obj. him, objective case, object of the verb struck. Blow, com- 
mon noun, 3rd person, singular, neuter, objective case, object of 
struck. A few verbs have two different objects at once, provided 
they can govern them as well separately. 

235. There, adverb, used by an idiom to introduce a verb before 
its subject, and called an expletive, or Ji ting-out word. There, adverb 
of place, belongs to were. 

236. Still, adverb of degree, implying something beyond what 
might be expected, limits ^7iad. For, subordinating" conjunction of 
reason and cause, unites the dependent and independent clauses. 
Still, adverb of time absolute, limits attends. Amidst, preposition, 
shows the relation between to show and sicains. 

237. Till is a conjunctive adverb of time, modifying the verbs 
pause and come, and connecting the dependent clause with the inde- 
pendent clause adverbially. "Come, verb, come, came, come, irregu- 
lar, intransitive, subjunctive, present, 3rd person, singular, agrees 
with it ; sign of the subjunctive till. Back, adverb of place, show- 
ing motion toward, limits come. 

238. As far as, adverbial phrase with the construction of a con- 
junction, belongs to will run and has, and connects the two clauses. 

239. Open, adjective, common, descriptive, not compared, modi- 
fies door. 

240. Ashore, adverb of place, limits went. Just, adverb of ex- 
tent, belongs to the phrase below Bai*negat. 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 18s 



ANSWERS TO GRAMMAR. SECOND GRADE. 

1. Place, time, manner and degree, cause, result or effect, con- 
dition, concession, end or purpose. 

2. Where, whence, when, as, while, until, ere, before, since, after, 
as soon as, as long as, because, whereas, for that, if, unless, without, 
except, provided, though, although, so that, notwithstanding that, 
in order that, lest, than. 

3. As subject of a verb, as object of a verb, as predicate noun, in 
apposition, as object of a preposition. 

4. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, Nero was 
fiddling. 

Subject, Nero 
Predicate, was fiddling 

Modifier of predioate,]*^- 

Analysis of (a): Subject, Borne 

Predicate, was burning 

Modifier of predicate, ( nR -. nnn 
and Connective \ when 

5. Complex exclamatory sentence. Principal clause, Jiere comes 
my brother. 

Subject, brother 

Modifier of subject, my 
Predicate, comes 

Modifiers of predicate: | %} am a mng man {a) 

Analysis of (a), which is an exclamatory clause in the dependent 
form: 

Subject, I 
Predicate, am 
Complement, man 

Modifiers of complement: j % v ; na 

Connective, as 

6. Simple declarative sentence, with a participial phrase. 

Subject, we 
Predicate, began 
Object, ascent 

Modifier of predicate :{JZ*£*"™"* 
Modifiers of object '.\^ tUmmwtain 

7. Simple declarative sentence, with an infinitive phrase. 

Subject, it 
Predicate is 



1 86 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

Complement, sweet 

Infinitive phrase explanatory of it, \ %£%£& wote W* 

8. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, ruler 

Modifiers of subject : \ * . 

( WCSG 

Predicate, does subject 
Object, subject 

Modifiers of predicate: {^unnecessary taxation 

Modifiers of object : -j a ^ 

9. Simple interrogative sentence. 

Subject, Henry 
Predicate, did do 
Object, what 

10. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, the fact is 
not sufficiently recognized. 

Subject, fact 

Modifiers of subject: j ^ man > spowers are Umited {a) 
Predicate, is recognized 
Modifiers of predicate: \Zffieiently 
Anatysis of the adjective clause (a) 
Subject, powers 

Modifier of subject, man's 
Predicate, are limited 
Connective, that 

11. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, he wa» 
generally master of that (what is equivalent to that which). 

Subject, he 
Predicate, was 
Complement, master 

Modifier of predicate, generally 

Modifier of complement, j °£f^ ^ that wMch "> U under ' 

Analysis of (a) : Subject, he 

Predicate, undertook 
Object, what (that which) 
Connective, what {which) 

12. Simple declarative sentence with a compound predicate. 

Subject, ship 
Modifier of subject, the 

Predicates: j Zilld^^ 
Modifier of second predicate, from port 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 1 87 

13. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, the ship 
sailed from port. 

Subject, ship 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, sailed 

Modifiers of predicate: {{^ZThad been loaded (a) 
Analysis of adverb clause (a): Subject, it 

Predicate, had been loaded 
Connective, when 

14. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, TJie ship 
sailed from port. 

Subject, ship 

Modifiers of subject : \ ^ Md hem loaded {a) 

Predicate, sailed 

Modifier of predicate, from port 
Analysis of adjective clause (a) : 

Subject and connective, which 
Predicate, had been loaded 

15. Simple exclamatory sentence. 

Subject, scenes 

Modifiers of subject : j ^ my MaUod 

Predicate, are 
Complement, dear 

Modifiers of complement : | £™ y ^^ 

16. Simple interrogative sentence. 

Subject, it 
Predicate, is 
Complement, worth 

Modifier of cornp.,] £*g**** ^^^^ 

Phrase in apposition with subject, for us to go 

\7. Simple declarative sentence. 
Subject, ship 

Modifiers of subject: j f^fMoon 
Predicate, was sent 

also 



Modifiers of predicate :&?,£*£?" 
[by the company 
18. Simple interrogative sentence. 
Subject, trees 
Modifier of subject, many- 
Modifier of many, how 



1 88 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

Predicate, are 

( in that lot 
Modifiers of pred. : -j (there is the expletive and not an 
( adverb of place) 

19. Compound imperative sentence, consisting of two simple 
sentences. Analysis of the first, keep still : 

Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, keep 
Complement, still 
Analysis of second proposition, or go out : 
Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, go 
Modifier of predicate, out 
The two clauses are introduced and connected by the coordinat- 
ing, alternative conjunctions either, or 

20. Complex declarative sentence, with the noun clause that 
fortune favors the brave used as subject. 

Subject, that fortune favors the brave (a) 
Predicate, is proved 
Complement, true 
Modifier of complement, often 
Analysis of (a): Subject, fortune 
Predicate, favors 
Object, brave 
Modifier of predicate, often 
Modifier of object, the 
Connective introducing noun clause, that 

21. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, he whistled. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, whistled 

Modifier of predicate, as he went (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject, he 

Predicate, went 
Modifier of pred. , j as (conjunctive 
and connective, "j adverb) 

22. Simple declarative sentence, with an independent participial 
phrase, in speaking of Smith 's farm. 

Subject, mine (my farm) 
Predicate, is 
Complement, larger 
Modifier of complement, (by) twenty acres 

23. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, people 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, elected 
Object, Garfield 

Appositive modifier of object, ) w .. s?>7 „ 7?/ 
or objective predicate \ president 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 1 89 

24. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, painted 
Object, house 

Modifier of object, the 
Objective or factitive predicate, yelloio 

25. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, / can say no 
more at present. 

Subject, I 
Predicate, can say 
Object, more 

Modifiers of predicate : { tYZ pressed for time (a) 
Modifier of object, no 
Analysis of (a) : Subject, i" 

Predicate, am pressed 

Modifier of predicate, for time 
Connective, as 

26. Simple imperative sentence. 

Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, ask 
Object, carpenter 

Modifiers of object: j %f ane the hoard true 

27. Complex imperative sentence. Principal clause, mark now. 

Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, mark 

{ now 
Modifiers of predicate: < how a plain tale shall 
( put you down (a) 
Analysis of (a): Subject, tale 

Modifiers of subject : 

Predicate, shall put 
Object, you 

Modifier of predicate, down 
Connective, how 

28. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, soldiers 
Predicate, called 
Object, stars and 



( plain 



Modifiers of subject : j ^ fafo ^ 

Objective or factitive predicate, Old Glory 

29. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, he may live 
to fight another day. The dependent clause, that fights and runs 
away, has a compound predicate. 



190 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

Subject, he 

Modifier of subject, that fights and runs away (a) 
Predicate, may live 

Modifier of predicate, to fight another day 
Analysis of the adjective clause (a): 
Subject and connective, that 
Compound predicate, fights and runs 

Modifier of predicate runs, away 

30. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, worked 
Object, hand 

Modifier of object, his 
Objective or factitive predicate, sore 

31. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, Sir Isaac 
Newton drew close to the grate. 

^Subject, Sir Isaac Newton 
'Predicate, drew 

Modifiers of predicate : | ^ gmte 

Modifier of grate, in which a fire had just been kindled (a) 
Analysis of (a), subordinate, adjective clause : 
Subject, fire 

Modifier of subject, a 
Predicate, had been kindled 

Modifiers of predicate: j £* *** 
Connective, which 

32. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, The success 
was as great 

Subject, success 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, was 
Complement, great 

Modifier of complement, as 
Adv. clause, modifier of as, as he expected (a) 
Analysis of (a) : Subject, he 

Predicate, expected 
Connective, as 

33. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, he was so 
successful. 

Subject, Tie 
Predicate, was 
Complement, successful 
Modifier of complement, so 
Modifier of so, that he was able to retire from business (a) 
Analysis of (a), an adverb clause: 
Subject, he 
Predicate, was 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. I91 

Complement, able 

Modifier of complement, to retire from business 
Connective, that 

34. Complex imperative sentence. Principal clause, withdraw thy 
feel from thy neighbor's Iwuse. 

Subject, tJwu (understood) 
Predicate, withdraw 
Object, feet 
Modifier of object, thy 

{from thy neighbor's house 
lest he be weary of thee and so hate 
thee (a) 
Analysis of (a), adverb clause, with a compound pred. : 
Subject, he 

Predicates,]^" 
Complement, weary 

Modifier of predicate, so 
Object, thee 

Modifier of complement, of thee 
Connective, lest 

35. Compound declarative sentence, composed of two simple 

sentences. 

Analysis of first sentence: 
Subject, harvest 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, is 
Complement, abundant 
Analysis of second sentence: 
Subject, we 
Predicates: | ™M rejoice (and) 

Complement, glad 

Coordinating conjunction, therefore 

36. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, the daughter 
is as old. 

Subject, daughter 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, is 
Complement, old 
Modifier of complement, as 
Modifier of as, as the mother was twenty years ago 
Analysis of (a), an abverb clause: 
Subject, mother 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, was 

Modifier of predicate, twenty years ago 
Connective, as 






192 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

37. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, such neigh- 
bors are neighbors indeed. 

Subject, neighbors 
Modifier of subject, such 
, T t^j e 7 S as these neiqhbors have shown them- 
Modifier of such, j selve8 ^ b y e {a) 

Predicate, are 
Complement, neighbors 

Modifier of predicate, indeed 
Analysis of tbe adjective clause (a): 
Subject, neighbors 

Modifier of subject, these 
Predicate, hare shown 
Object, themselves 

Modifier of object, to be 
Connective, as 

38. Compound declarative sentence, composed of two simple 
clauses. First clause': 

Subject, North River 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, was called 

Modifier of predicate, in honor of its discoverer 
Complement, Hudson 
Modifier of complement, the 
Modifier of honor, of its discoverer 
Analysis of second clause : 
Subject, South River 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, was called 
Modifier of predicate, in honor, etc. 
Modifier of honor, of I/yrd de la War 
Modifier of Lord de la War, one 
Modifier of one, of the original pi'oprietors 
Modifier of proprietors, of that region 
Complement, Delaware 
Connective, and 

39. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, A fort once 
s'ood. 

Subject, fort 

Modifier of subject, a 
Predicate, s'ood 

Modifiers of predicate: | X* we are now standing (a) 
Analysis of (a) : Subject, we 

Predicate, are standing 

Modifiers of predicate: j 7 ^ re 
Connective, where 

40. Simple declarative sentence. 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 1 93 

Subject, I 

Predicate, should call 

Object, her 

Objective or factitive predicate, simpleton, modifier a 

41. Simple imperative sentence. 

Subject, you (imderstood) 
Predicate, plant 
Object, seeds 

Modifier of predicate, deep 

Modifier of object, the 
Modifier of deep, in the ground 

42. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, icas elected 
Complement, chairman 
Modifier of complement, of the meeting 

43. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, captain 

Modifiers of subject j ^ sMp 

Predicate, anchored 
Object, her 
Modifier of predicate, below the pier 
Modifier of Mow the pier, just 

44. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, The red- 
man wondered. 

Subject, red-man 
Predicate, icondered 

{what awful mice was speaking 
amid the wind {a) that roared 
through the tree-tops 
Analysis of (a) : 

Subject, voice 

Modifiers of subject: \ W J$ ul 

Predicate, was speaking 

Modifier of predicate, amid the wind 

Modifier of wind, that roared through the tree-tops (b) 
Connective, what 
Analysis of (b) : 

Subject, that 
Predicate, roared 

Modifier of predicate, through the tree-tops 
Connective, that 

45. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, Napoleon 
ordered. 

Subject, Napoleon 
Predicate, ordered 
Object, that ajpart of the soldiers should act as prisoners (a) 



194 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

Analysis of noun clause (a) : 
Subject, part 

Modifiers of subject: | ^ ^^ 

Predicate, should act 
Modifier of predicate, as 

i prisoners (or prisoners may be the subject of 
act understood in a new clause introduced 
by as) 
Connective, thai 

46. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, fishes 
Predicate, can live 
Modifier of predicate, in water 
Modifier of in water, only 

47. Simple declarative sentence, with two infinitive phrases. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, constrained 
Object, disciples 
Modifier of predicate, straightway 

Modifipr of (JiwmU* \ to enter inio a hoat and U 9° 
Modifier ot disciples, -j before Mm unU) (he Qther ^ 

Modifier of object, the 

48. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, thou shalt 
be anise for thyself. 

Subject, thou 
Predicate, shalt he 
Complement, wise 
Modifier of complement, for thyself 
Modifier of predicate, if thou be wise (a) 
Analysis of {a): Subject, thou 
Predicate, be 
Complement, wise 
Connective, if 

49. Simple declarative sentence, with a compound predicate 
The three predicates had laid, bound, put. 

Subject, Herod 

{had laid 
bound 
put 
( hold 
Objects : •< him 
( him 
Modifier of first object, on John 

Modifiers of last predicate :{#/SSLta 

Modmerof^:]^^^^^ 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOXD GRADE, 1 95 

50 Complex declarative sentence. Principle clause, lie will come. 
Subject, he 
Predicate, will come 
Modifier of predicate, provided he receive my letter (a) 
Analysis of adverb clause («): Subject, he 

Predicate, receive 
Object, letter 

Modifier of object, my 
Connective, provided 

51. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, The true 
monarch* of every country are those. 

Subject, monarchs 

(the 
Modifiers of subject : -J true 

( of every country 
Predicate, are 
Complement, those 

Modifier of complement, | W ^ZtZ\a) ^ ^^ ^ 
Analysis of adjective clause (a): Subject, sway 

Predicate, is 
Modifier of subject and connective, ichose 

Modifiers of predicate: j £&•**•"* 

52. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, he called 
for me. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, called 

Modifiers of predicate : j jj» ™ e was to go with Mm {a) 

Analysis of adverb clause (a): Subject, I 

Predicate, icas 

Modifier of pred. , to go with him 
Connective, for 

53. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, / said 

Subject, I 
Predicate, said 

Object, that I laid down the mnney to pay the bill (a) 
Analysis of noun clause (a): Subject, I 

Predicate, laid 
Object, money 
Modifier of pred., down 

Modifiers of object : j f Q 6 pay m m 

Connective, that 

54. Complex interrogative sentence. Principal clause, Will he 
stay ? 

Subject, he 
Predicate, will stay 



Modifiers of subject : 



v 



I96 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

, r ,., * -,. , \ until I come back (a) 

Modifiers of predicate : J ^ / do go (b) 

Analysis of adverb clause {a): Subject, / 

Predicate, come 

Modifier of pred., back 
Connective, until 
Analysis of adverb clause (b), modifier of come: Subject, / 

Predicate, do go 
Connective, if 

55. Simple declarative sentence. 
Subject, triumphs 

{all 
the 

of truth and (of) genius, 
over prejudice and 
power, 

in every con n try, and 
in every age 

Predicate, have been 

Complement, triumphs 

Modifiers of complement : \ Jf Afj iens 

56. Simple declarative sentence, with an infinitive phrase used as 
subject. 

Subject, the noun-phrase to appear discouraged 
Predicate, is 
Complement, way 

Modifiers of complement : j ^ beeome so 

57. Simple imperative sentence. 

Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, icait 
Modifier of predicate, a moment 
Modifier of a moment, just 

58. Simple declarative sentence, with a participial phrase. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, was 
Complement, active 

Modifiers of complement: j <%%£*« m age 

59. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, It is just 
about a year, with two dependent clauses. 

Subject, it 
Predicate, is 
Complement, year 

Modifiers of complement : -j a aoou + 

Modifier of about, just 
Modifier of predicate, since I saw (a) 



' GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 1 97 

Analysis of adverb clause (a): Subject, I 

Predicate, saw 

Connective, since 

Object, ichat was doing there (b) 

Analysis of noun clause (b): Subject and connective, what 
Predicate, was doing 
"Modifier of predicate, there 

60. Complex imperative sentence. Principal clause, ye shall not 
, it of it. 

Subject, ye 
Predicate, shall eat 

!not 
of it 
lest ye die (a) 
Analysis of adverb clause (a): Subject, ye 

Predicate, die 
Connective, lest 

61 . Complex imperative sentence. Principal clause, the Lord's 
sweet pity with her go. 

Subject, (you) understood 
Predicate, (let) 
Object, pity 

(the 
Modifiers of object :\^ S 

I (to) go 

Modifiers of go : j where > er her troubled path may be (a) 
Analysis of adverb clause (a): Subject, path 

Modifiers of subject: j ^^ 

Predicate, may be 
Modifier of pred., ) where > er 
and connective, ] wneieer 

62. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, i" do not 
care. 

Subject, / 
Predicate, do care 

Modifiers of predicate: \ JJg^ u comes „ no( {a) 

Analysis of adverb clause (a): (Written in full it would read, 

whether he comes or does not come.) 
Subject, he 

Predicates: j f w " , 
( does come 

Modifier of predicate, not 
Connectives: \^ ether 



I98 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

63. Complex imperative sentence. Principal clause, Let him 
hear. 

Subject, thou (understood) 
Predicate, let 
Object, him 
Modifier of him, (to) hear 
Modifier of object, that hath ears to hear (a) 
Analysis of adjective clause (a): Subject; that 

Predicate, hath 
Object, ears 
Modifier of object, 
to hear 
Nominative independent by pleonasm, he 

64. Simple declarative sentence, with a participial phrase. 

Subject, something 

Predicate, is 

Complement, the infinitive phrase to be said in his favor 

Modifiers of predicate :.| J*^ M tMs 

Introductory adverb (expletive), there 

65. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, There shall 
not be left one stone upon another. 

Subject, stone 

Modifiers of subject : j ^ ^ nQt u thrmn ^ 

Predicate, shall be left 

Modifiers of predicate : j ^ amther 

Expletive, there 
Analysis of adjective clause (a) : Subject, that 

Predicate, shall be thrown 

Modifiers of pred.: \ ^ 

Connective, that 

66. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, Ye cannot 
bt saved. 

Subject, ye 
Predicate, can be saved 

Modifiers of predicate : | ^ ^ flW& fa m sMp {a) 

Analysis of adverb clause (a) : Subject, these 

Predicate, abide 

Modifier of pred., in the ship 
Connective, except 

67. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, I know a 
bank. 

Subject, / 
Predicate, know 
Object, bank 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 1 99 



a 



Modifiers of object : j whereon the wild thyme grom {a) 
Analysis of adjective clause (a) : Subject, thyme 

Modifiers of subject : j * rf 

Predicate, grows 
Modifier of pred., i whereon 
and connective, } wtieieon 
68. Complex imperative sentence. Principal clause, Defer not till 
evening. What may be considered equivalent to that which, and the 
principal clause will be Defer not that till evening, and the dependent 
clause which morning mag and should accomplish. For the sake of 
variety this construction will be given. See 59. 
Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, defer 

Modifiers of predicate : j Zl evening 
Object, that 

at /!•-« -p i • 4. ( which morning may and should 
Modifier of object, ] n „ nmrnUsh (/1 K y 



accomplish (a) 
Analysis of the noun clause in apposition (a) : 
Subject, morning 

PrpdipfltPs • i ma y (accomplish) and 
rreaicates . -j %hoyM accomp[ush 

Object and connective, which 

69. Simple declarative sentence, with an infinitive phrase. 

Subject, man 

Modifiers of subject i\f 6 ung 

Predicate, received 
Object, dollars 
Modifier of object, ten thousand 
Modifier of dollars, to begin the world with (which) 

70. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, The mill will 
never grind with the water. 

Subject, mill 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, will grind 

Modifiers of predicate : j n JmtU W aUr 
Modifier of water, that is past (a) 
Analysis of adjective clause (a): Subject and ) /7)/r , 

connective \ maz 
Predicate, is 
Complement, past 

71. Simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, extolled 
Object, wares 



200 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

Modifier of object, his 

Modifier of predicate, beyond their worth 

72. Simple declarative sentence, with an infinitive phrase. 

Subject, John 
Predicate, is 
Complement, foolish 
Modifier of complement, very 
Modifier of foolish, to take such a thing to heart 

73. Simple exclamatory sentence, with an infinitive phrase. 

Subject, it 
Predicate, is 
Complement, sweet 

Modifier of complement, how 
Noun phrase in appo- \ to lie down on the pillow after a day 

sition with subject, \ spent in temperance 

74. Compound declarative sentence, composed of a complex and 
a compound sentence. Analysis of the complex sentence : Princi- 
pal clause, I know not that course {what equivalent to that which); 

Subject, / 
Predicate, know 

Modifier of predicate, not 
Object, course 

Modifiers of object : | ^ ^ m may ^ (a) 

Analysis of adjective clause (a) : Subject, others 

Predicate, may take 
Object and ) , . , 
connective \ w/llcn 
Analysis of the compound member: First proposition, but as for- 
me, give me liberty; 

Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, give 
Object, liberty 

Modifier of predicate, (to) me 
Exclamatory phrase abridged ) „„ , Mi , 
from a dependent clause, \ as f or me 
Connective, but 
Analysis of second proposition, or give me death: 
Subject, you (understood) 
Predicate, give 
Object, death 

Modifier of predicate, (to) me 
Connective, or 

75. Though he search all day, he will not find it. 

76. His letter is to the purport that he will soon arrive. 
111. He retired because he could not help it. 

78. She stoops that she may conquer. She stoops to conquer. 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 201 

79. We are pained to hear God's name profaned. We are pained 
when we hear God's name profaned. 

80. For me to go is impossible. I love to rest under tlie tree. That 
the earth is round is now well known. He now learned ichat it is 
to be poor. 

81. The books which lie on the table are school-books. 

82. Brothers, members of one family; brethren, members of a 
society. Dies, stamps for coining ; dice, small cubes for gaming. 
Indexes, tables of contents ; indices, algebraic signs. 

83. Moneys', pennies', talismans'. 

84. Connecting sentences in the manner of a conjunction, and 
representing a noun by referring to an antecedent. 

85. It precedes the verb. 

86. Sisters-in-law's, mouse-traps', hangers-on's. 

87. Youth, countess, nephew, madam, mamma, heiress, empress, 
marchioness, testatrix, duchess, Josephine, Caroline, widower, swain. 

88. Sws, Messrs. (Messieurs), mesdames, banditti or bandits, radii, 
analyses, strata, genera. 

89. Four, four hundred firsts. 

90. By its offices, and its inflection, which is by degree or com- 
parison. 

91. This, that. 

92. As an adjective, it limits ; as a conjunction, it connects ; as a 
relative pronoun, it represents its antecedent; as a demonstrative 
pronoun, it performs the offices of a noun and an adjective. 

93. Cardinals are limiting adjectives which express number by 
denoting a total, as eight. Numerals are limiting adjectives which 
express number. Ordinals state the place of the individual in the 
series: eighth. 

94. Place and motion ; time and succession ; manner and quality; 
measure and degree; modality. 

95. Beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful ; fore, former, fore- 
most or first. 

96. One that has assumed an auxiliary. 

97. Mode, from its derivation from the Latin modus (manner), and 
its signification "the manner of the action." 

98. By the person and number of the subject. 

99. Old or strong: bind, bound, bound. New or weak: lone, loved, 
loved. 

100. (Answer left for the student.) 

101. Future-perfect. 

102. It does not. 

103. Mulct, mulcted, mulcted; shear, sheared or shore, sheared or 
shorn; beat, beat, beaten or beat; seethe, seethed or sod, seethed or 
sodden. 



202 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

104. One that wants most of its parts, or has no participle : beware, 
meihinks, ought. One that has more than one form in any of its 
parts : woiked or wrought. 

105. One that connects a subject and some word or words 
describing that subject, and has no meaning of its own except that 
of signifying the assertion. 

106. One used with the subject it, when no definite actor is re- 
ferred to. 

107. One that expresses affirmation, or that Lets person and number. 

108. (Answer left for the student.) 

109. Shall in the first persons, and will in the others, denote simple 
futurity ; loill in the first persons, and shall in the others, express 
determination or compulsion. 

110. Those made from other prepositional or from adverbial ele 
ments (by combination), or from verbs, as aslant, notwithstanding 
into. 

111. From out, in front of, for the sake of, in respect to, an for. 

112. Touching, save, respecting, past, except. 

113. Coordinating are those that unite senterces of equal rank or 
order: and, or, but, for. Subordinating arc those which connect a 
dependent clause to that on which it depends, and are further 
divided into conjunctions of place and time : where, when, while, 
until, ere, since, as soon as. etc. ;— of cause and condition: because, 
whereas, if, unless, provided, though ;— of end or purpose: that, so that, 
in order that, lest ; — of comparison: as, than. 

114. Conjunctive adverbs perform two offices, uniting and modi- 
fying. Pure conjunctions merely unite. 

115. The same flag that we' saw before (relative). The court of 
England has survived that of France (adjective pronoun). That 
book belongs to me (adjective). Few people know that some crows 
are a huadred years old (conjunction). 

116. Sin may gratify, but repentance stings (conjunction). Words 
are but leaves (adjective). I did but borrow the horse ; Friends are 
but few (adverb). Whence all but him had fled (preposition). 

117. The violin or the banjo, played by some old negro, beguiles 
the summer evening. 

118. Whose gray top shall tremble, Re descending. 

119. Each of our party has carried a knapsack with him. 

120. You have been playing these two hours. 

121. Solomon was the wisest of the ancient kings. 

122. This is a more reasonable proposition than any of the others. 

123. One or more words are omitted. Neither thou nor I am to 
blame. 

124. I met him at Smith the bookseller's. These works are 
Cicero's, the most eloquent of men. 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 203 

125. My two friends have married, respectively, a sensible, and a 
beautiful woman. My friend married a sensible and beautiful 

woman. 

126. He being on deck, etc. A noun or pronoun used absolutely 
must be in the nominative case. 

127. Shall you go to the President's this evening? Shall is here 
the appropriate word to denote mere futurity. 

128. This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's. (One of Sir Isaac 
Newton's discoveries.) 

129. This is the house of my father's brother's daughter. A harsh 
possessive may often be avoided by using of and the objective. 

130. Thee, ichom he had most injured, etc. Whom is the object 
of had injured. 

131. You will never have another such chance. No article is 
needed when the noun is sufficiently limited by other words. 

132. The Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers form the Ohio. 
When two nouns refer to the same thing, the article precedes the 
first only. 

133. I rejoice that there is another and better world. The adjec- 
tives refer to the same noun, hence need but one article. 

134. The water is about six fathoms deep. Six expresses a plural 
idea, hence fathoms must be plural. 

_ 135. Henry or William will give us his company. Two or more 
singular nouns connected by or constitute a singular antecedent. 

136. Those two boys must not speak to each other. One another 
is used in reference to more than two. 

137. Bismarck is greater than any other German statesman. The 
latter term of comparison must not include the former. 

138. She is so extravagant a woman. Adverb (so) is required to 
limit the adjective. 

139. Have you Webster's or Worcester's dictionary? When com- 
mon possession is not intimated each word takes the sign. 

140. Adam was Cain and Abel's father. Two words denoting 
common possession take the possessive sign but once, and at the end. 

141. I went to Smith, Brown & Company's store. See above. 

142. I owe thee a heavy debt, and wilt thou not allow me to repay 
it? The solemn form once commenced must be continued. 

143. Here is a pupil who possesses fine talents. Who is used in 
speaking of persons. 

144. Virtuous effort and not depraved •genius wins the prize. 
Two or more singular subjects connected by and, when taken sepa- 
rately, require a singular verb. 

145. The fragrant myrtle and sweet-scented woodbine render the 
air in this spot truly delicious. Subjects connected by and denot- 
ing different persons and things taken together require the plural. 



204 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

146. Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dicell with the golden mediocrity. 
The subject is plural, implying that the three are taken together, as 
the subject of dwell. 

147. In that transaction their safety and welfare are most con" 
cerned. The subjects are connected by and, hence plural. 

148. When shall we three meet again? Shall in the first person 
denotes simple futurity. 

149. I intended to be at home when you called. A common error : 
to have been represents the action as completed at the time of the 
principal verb, whereas it should be future in regard to it. 

150. The flowers smell very sweet and look beautiful. Sweet and 
beautiful are adjectives belonging to flowers. 

151. Did you expect to hear so poor a sermon? Observe sequence 
of tenses as in No. 149. 

152. By letters of the third of May we learn that the West India 
fleet arrived safe. Safe expresses the coadition in which the fleet 
arrived. 

153. There teas a great number of spectators. The subject of was 
is the singular noun number. 

154. What sounds has each of the vowels? The subject of has is 
the singular pronoun each. 

155. The committee has attended to its business. If the collection 
is regarded as a unit, the verb must be in the singular. 

156. My flesh and my heart fail. A plural subject in the com- 
mon form requires a plural verb in the common form. 

157. High pleasure and luxurious living beget satiety. The verb 
must agree with the subject in number. 

158. We had lain on the ground all night. Here is required the 
intransitive verb lie, lay, lain. 

159. She is as peevish as a sitting hen. Sit is the intransitive verb. 

160. After lying awhile in this position, he rose up. The intransi- 
tive verbs lie and rise are required. 

161. The man could neither read nor write. Neither, nor, are 
correlatives. 

162. Which of the group of men is the tallest? Superlative is 
required when more than two are compared. 

163. An account of all the great events in all parts of the world 
is given in the daily papers. Is must agree with its subject, account. 

164. He is a man of remarkably clear intellect. An adverb is 
needed to modify the adjective clear. 

165. Either you or I am in the way. The verb agrees with the 
subject nearest it. 

166. That is seldom or never the case. Never is an adverb of 
denial and corresponds to seldom. 

167. The following treatise, together with those that accompany 



GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 205 

it, tea* written several years ago. A parenthetical clause does not 
affect the principal verb. 

168. That is either a man's or a woman's voice. No common 
possession signified, hence the sign is repeated. 

169. Of all the qualities of style, clearness is the most important. 
The superlative requires clearness to be included in qualities. 

170. When, conjunctive adverb ; as a subordinate conjunction, it 
connects the dependent clause with the principal; as an adverb of 
time, it modifies does ; thine, pronoun, personal, 2nd person, singular, 
(declension) thou, thy or thine, thee, possessive case, limiting alms, 
solemn style ; let, verb, irregular, let, let, let, transitive, active, im- 
perative, 2nd person, singular, agrees with thou (understood) ; know, 
verb, know, knew, knoicn, irregular, transitive, active, infinitive, and 
depends on let (to omitted) ; what, relative pronoun (that which), 
neuter, 3rd person, singular, objective case, the object of know and 
doeth ; doeth is a verb, do, did, done, irregular, transitive, active, 
indicative mode, 3rd person, singular, and agrees with hand. 

171. New-born, an adjective, descriptive, common, compound, 
limits child ; weeping is a participle, present, active, from the irregu- 
lar verb weep, \cept, weeping, wept, relates to child ; safst, verb, sit, 
sat, sat, irregular, intransitive, indicative, past, 2nd person, singular, 
agrees with thou; thee, pronoun, personal, 2nd person, singular, 
declined thou, thy or thine, thee, objective case, object of around ; 
live, verb, live, lived, lived, regular, intransitive, imperative, 2nd 
person, singular, agrees with thou (understood) ; sinking is a present, 
active participle, from the irregular verb sink, sunk or sank, sunk, 
relates to thou ; while, conjunctive adverb of time, modifies weeping 
and smiled, and joins the dependent and principal clauses. 

172. To have been, an infinitive, from be or am, was, being, been, 
irregular, intransitive, "and depends on seem ; only, adverb of degree, 
limiting like ; like, adverb of manner, compared like, more like, 
most like, positive degree, and belongs to to have been ; boy. common 
noun, 3rd person, singular, masculine, declined boy, boy's, boy, objec- 
tive case, preposition (unto) being understood ; now, adverb of time 
present, belongs to finding ; then, adverb of time past, belongs to 
finding ; finding is a transitive, active, present participle, from find, 
found, finding, found, used as a noun, neuter gender, 3rd person, 
singular, objective case, governed by in ; than, conjunction of com- 
parison, connects smoother and prettier and ordinary ; ordinary, 
adjective, descriptive, common, compared ordinary, more ordinary, 
most ordinary, limits pebble or shell (understood) ; whilst, conjunc- 
tive adverb of time, modifying to have been and lay, and joining its 
own clause to the principal clause. 

173. These, adjective pronoun, demonstrative, 3rd person, plural, 
neuter, objective case, in an elliptical construction with like (unto 
being understood) ; that, relative pronoun, 3rd person, singular 
number, neuter gender, to agree with its antecedent grandeur, nom- 
inative case, subject of makes ; revered, passive participle, modifying 



206 GRAMMAR FOR SECOND GRADE. 

Tier ; but, an adverb of degree, denoting exclusion or emphasis, 
belongs to are ; man's, a contraction of man is; man is a common 
noun, 3rd person, masculine, singular, nominative case, subject of 
is ; is is a verb, be or am, was, been, irregular, intransitive (neuter), 
indicative, present, 3rd person, singular, agrees with man. 

174. Like, common adjective, descriptive, like, more like, most 
like, positive degree, and limits host; leaves, common noun, 3rd person, 
plural, neuter, objective case, in an elliptical construction with like 
(supply unto) ; Jiost, common noun, collective, 3rd person, singular 
in form, plural in meaning, nominative case, subject of are seen. 

175. Shrieks, common noun, neuter, third, plural, nominative 
case, subject of come ; wild, common adjective, descriptive, wild, 
wUder, wildest, positive degree, and limits shrieks; that, pronoun, 
relative, third, plural, neuter, to agree with its antecedent shrieks, 
nominative case, subject of cut; blades, common noun, 3rd person, 
plural, neuter, objective case. "A noun or pronoun used without a 
governing word, but limiting another word like an adjunct, must be 
in the objective case." Causing is a participle, active, present, from 
the regular, transitive verb cause, causing, caused, caused, relates to 
shrieks; creeping is a participial adjective, from the irregular, in- 
transitive verb creep, crept, creeping, crept, Omits blood; to chill is an 
infinitive, present, active, from chill, chilled, chilling, chilled, relates 
to blood. 

176. When, conjunctive adverb of time, modifying the two verbs 
was and thought, and joining the dependent clause to the principal 
clause ; nothing, common noun, 3rd person, singular, neuter, ob- 
jective case, object of of; else is an adjective, definitive, pronominal, 
limits nothing ; but, preposition, shows the relation between nothing 
and pleasure ; pleasure, common noun, abstract, 3rd person, singu- 
lar, neuter, objective case, object of the preposition but. 

177. Seeing, subordinating conjunction, causal, connects the two 
clauses ; ye, pronoun, personal, 2nd person, plural, common gender, 
nominative case, subject of ire re. 

178. Even, adverb of degree, belongs to is counted ; when, con- 
junctive adverb of time, modifying the verbs is counted and holdeth, 
and joins the dependent to the principal clause adverbially ; is 
counted, verb, count, counted, counted, regular, transitive, passive, 
indicative, present, 3rd person, singular, agrees with fool. 

179. More and worse are adverbs limiting struggle and are off; 
off, adverb used in an idiom with worse, belongs to are ; the, the, as 
here used, are in reality pronominal adverbs, meaning by hoio much, 
by so much, 

180. Worth is an adjeciive, diverted from its noun use, descriptive, 
common, belongs to people ; speaking is a participle used as a noun ; 
it comes from the transitive, irregular, active verb speak, 8, take, speak- 
ing, spoken ; as a noun, it is neuter, 3rd person, singular, and ob- 
jective case ; with is an adverb of degree, diverted from its preposi 
tional use, and belongs to speaking. 



GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 20J 



ANSWERS TO GRAMMAR, FIRST GRADE. 

1. An adjective or noun is called a factitive, or objective predicate, 
when it is brought by the verb into relation "with the direct object, 
as qualifying or describing that object : They sang themselves hoarse ; 
He made the water wine. 

2. Yes: two or more subordinate clauses of the same kind may 
have the same construction in a sentence, being joined together by 
coordinating conjunctions: A bird that lay on the ground, and that 
could not fly, died. 

3. A substantive clause performs the office of a substantive or sub- 
ject : Thai the boy is dead is the substance of the letter. A noun clause 
may be used in any construction proper for a noun : I heard tlmt he 
had gone. 

4. One that has one or more of its independent clauses complex. 

5. Compound declarative sentence, composed of two complex 
members. The wind bloweth where it listeth, is the first. Principal 
clause, the wind bloweth. 

Subject, wind 

Modifier of subject, the 
Predicate, bloweth 
Modifier of predicate, where it listeth (a) 
Analysis of adverb clause (a) : Subject, it 

Predicate, listeth 
Connective, where 
Second complex sentence has a compound predicate and two de- 
pendent clauses. Principal clause, and thou hearest the sound thereof, 
but canst not tell. 

Subject, thou 

-d™/n™+™ S hearest 
Predicates: \ camtm 

Ohiprts • \ 80un ^ 

J * ( whence it comelh (a) nor whither it goeth (b) 

Modifier of object, the 

Modifiers of predicates: j ^T^ 

Connective of ) *. 
predicates, f 
Analysis of noun clause (a): Subject, it 

Predicate, cometh 
Modifier of predicate,) h 
and connective, ) 
Analysis of noun clause (b) : Subject, it 

Predicate, goeth 

Connective and modifier ) wMthfir 
of predicate, ^wmmer 

Connective of dependent clauses, nor 
Connective of the two sentences, and 



208 GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 

6. Compound declarative sentence, composed of two complex 
members. First complex member, No one who is a lover of money, 
a lover of pleasure, and a lover of glory, is likewise a lover of mankind. 
Subject, one 

!no 
who is a lover of money, a lover of 
pleasure, and a lover of glwy (a) 
Predicate, is 

Modifier of predicate, likewise 
Complement, lover 

Modifiers of complement :\ °/ manklnd 



Analysis of adjective clause (a) : Subject, who 

Predicate, is 

{lover 
lover 
lover 

( of money 
Modifiers of comp. : -J of pleasure 
( of glory 
Connective, who 
Analysis of second complex member : Principal clause, but only 
lie (is a lover of mankind). 
Subject, he 

Modifiers of subject: \ »** * a ^ er °f virtue W 

Connective, but 
Analysis of adjective clause (a) : Subject, who 

Predicate, is 
Complement, lover 

Modifiers of comp.: | " fvirtue 
Connective, who 
7. Compound declarative sentence, composed of two complex 
members. The first is, You stood still while he advanced. Principal 
clause, yov. stood still. 
Subject, you 
Predicate, stood 

Modifiers of predicate:] J*"^ ^^^ 

Analysis of adverb clause (a) : Subject, he 

Predicate, advanced 
Connective, while 
Analysis of second complex member: Principal clause, For 
neither of you knew. 

Subject, neither 

Modifier of subject, of you 
Predicate, knew 

Object, what ought to be done (a) 
Connective, for 



GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 2(X) 

Analysis of noun clause {a): Subject, what 

Predicate, ought 

Modifier of predicate, to be done 
Connective, what 

8. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, Nothing 
would have interested me more than to icitness the play of passions. 
First dependent clause, that must thus have been evolved (c). Second 
dependent clause, had I been as cold-hearted (a) as I sometimes tliought 
myself (b), which modifies the verb, would have interested. 

Analysis of principal clause: 
Subject, nothing 
Predicate, would have interested 
Object, me 

( more 
Modifiers of predicate ••< than to witness the play of pas- 
( sions (a) and (b) 

Modifier of play of passions, \ *%£££» **" *"" 
Analysis of adjective clause (c): 
Subject, that 
Predicate, must have been evolved 

Modifier of predicate, thus 
Connective, that 
Analysis of second dependent clause : 
Subject, / 
Predicate, had been 
Complement, cold-hearted 
Modifier of complement, as 
Modifier of as, as I sometimes thought myself (b) 
Connective, if (understood) 
Analysis of adverb clause (b) : 
Subject, i" 
Predicate, thought 
Object, myself 

Modifier of predicate, sometimes 
Connective, as 

9. Complex declarative sentence. Principal clause, I laid the 
money on the counter. 

Analysis of principal clause: 
Subject, i" 
Predicate, laid 
Object, money 

Modifiers of predicate:]™^" 

Modifiers of object: j ^ IpM (J) 

Analysis of adverb clause (a) 1 
Subject, I 
Predicate, said 
Connective, as 



210 GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 



Analysis of adjective clause (b) : 
Subject, I 
Predicate, paid 



Object and [ Mh 
connective, \ wfllcfl 



10. Compound declarative sentence, composed of two complex 
members. 

Analysis of first complex member: Principal clause, I will go. 
Subject, i" 
Predicate, will go 
Modifier of predicate, whither thou goest (a) 
Analysis of adverb clause (a) : Subject, thou 

Predicate, goest 

Mo ± °J t LP™?-' I whither 
and connec, ) 

Analysis of second complex member: Principal clause, I will 

lodge. 

Subject, I 

Predicate, will lodge 

Modifier of predicate, where thou lodgest (b) 

Analysis of adverb clause (b) : Subject, thou 

Predicate, lodgest 

Mod.ofpred.J ; 

and connec, ( w,vmv 

Connective of the two sentences, and 

11. Complex declarative sentence, with a noun clause as object of 
a preposition. Principal clause, i" have sinned. 

Subject, / 
Predicate, have sinned 

Modifier of predicate, \ ^f^bloodia) ^'^ ^ ^ 
Analysis of noun clause (a) : Subject, T 

Predicate, have betrayed 
Object, blood 

Mod. of object: j g^ 

~ .. ( in that (in 

Connective, ] thigway ^ 

Note. — The dependent clause is equivalent to the prepositional 
phrase by (or in) betraying the innocent blood. 

12. Complex. Principal clause, and the moon and its broken reflec- 
tion and its shadows shall appear as the symbol of love in heaven, and 
(as) its wavering image here, forever and forever. 

!moon 
reflection 
shadows 



GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 211 

( the 
Modifiers of subjects: \ its broken 
(its 
Predicate, shall appear 

Complements,^ 

Modifiers of symbol : j t 'f love 

Modifier of love, in heaven 

^om^oi image: \ icavering 

Modifier of entire phrase, here 
Connective of subjects, and 
Connective of appositives (complements), and 
Connective of subjects and appositives (complements), as 
[forever and forever 
\ as long as the river flows (a) 



Modifiers of pred 
Adverb clauses modi- ( as the river flows 



' 1 as long as the heart has passions (b) 
[_ as long as life has woes (c) 



each line: ( as life has woes 

13. Simple declarative sentence, with three infinitive phrases. 

Subject, we 
Predicate, did think 
Object, it 

Modifiers of obj. : j ^^^ in0Ur ** (1) 
Modifier of let, (to) know it (3) 

14. Complex sentence. Principal clause, you should not set out. 

Subject, you 
Predicate, should set 

{not 
out 
unless you are certain (a) that he is there (b) 
Analysis of adverb clause (a) : 
Subject, you 
Predicate, are 
Complement, certain 
Connective, unless 

Modifier of complement, that he is there (b) 
Analysis of adverb clause (5) : 
Subject, he 
Predicate, is 

Modifier of predicate, there 
Connective, that 

15. Complex sentence. Principal clause, he erected the wall. 

Subject, he 
Predicate, erected 



2 12 GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 

Object, wall 
Modifier of pred., in order that he might stop trespassing (a) 
Modifier of object, the 
Analysis of adverb clause (a) : Subject, he 

Predicate, might stop 
Object, trespassing 
Connective, in order that 

16. Complex sentence. (What may be considered equivalent to 
that which, or the dependent clause may be regarded as the subiect 
of remains.) J 

Subject, what I hare done (a) 

Predicate, remains 

Modifier of predicate, to he seen 
Analysis of the noun-clause (a) : Subject, I 

Predicate, have done 
Object, what 

17. Complex sentence. Principal clause, more brief appear our 
life 8 succeeding stages. 

Subject, stages 

Modifiers of subject : \ mcce fd™9 
(our life 8 
Predicate, appear 

Modifiers of predicate : \ mor J e . br jf 

I we lire tlie more (a) 
Analysis of adverb clause (a) : Subject, we 

Predicate, live 
mi . , Mod. of pred., the more 

ine is used as an adverb modifying more. 

IS- Complex sentence, with three infinitive phrases, one infinitive 
having a clause as a direct object. 
Subject, it 
Predicate, is 

Complement, ours (our privilege) 
Modifier of predicate, not 
_, _.„ ( to separate 

Modifiers of complement : -j to show 

( divide (to) 
Object of separate, skein 

( tlie 
Modifiers of skein : j tangled 

( of will and fate 
Object of show \ w7iat metes and °<>nnds should stand 
w ' t upon the soul's debatable land (a) 

Modifier of divide, between choice and Providence 
Object of divide, circle 

Modifiers of object:-! th J 
_, ( of events 

Connective, and 



GRAMMAR FOR FIX ST GRADE. 21 3 

Analysis of noun clause (a): 

Subjects: metes and bounds 

Modifier of subjects, what 
Predicate, should stand 
Modifier of predicate, upon the sonVs debatable land 

19. Complex sentence. Principal clause, Every individual has a 
place to Jill in the world, and is important in some respect. 

Subject, individual 

Modifier of subject, every 
Compound predicate, has and is important 
Complement, important 
Object, place 

Modifiers of object : ] J fia fa m worU 

Modifier of predicated: \ "*£ft a f* clmm to U S ° w 

Modifier of complement, in some respect 
Connective, and 
Analysis of adverb clause (a): 
Subject, he 
Predicate, chooses 
Object of chooses, infinitive phrase to be so or not 

Modifiers of the infinitives : -j 80 . 

Connective, or 

Connective between principal and dependent clauses, whether 

20. Complex sentence. Principal clause, Its biting air did but 
trace itself in loveliest frost-work of fancy on the many windows of that 
self-centered and cheerful soul. 

Subject, air 

Modifiers of subject: j *^ 

Predicate, did trace 
Object, itself 

r if the outward world was cold to 
Shakspere (a) 
Modifiers of predicate :-| in loveliest frost-work 
on the many windows 
Ibut 
Modifier of frost- icork, of fancy 
Modifier of windows, \ of f ^jelf -centered and cheer- 

Analysis of (a) : 

Subject, world 

Modifiers of subject : | % tward 

Predicate, was 
Complement, cold 



214 GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 

Modifiers of predicate : { t^Z^ont to wkine (») 
Connective, if 
Analysis of (b) : 

Subject, poets 
Predicate, are 
Complement, wont 

Modifier of wont, to whine 
Connective, as 

21. Those that fly when they are on xhe way to battle may fight 
another day. 

22. This man is in deep sorrow because his child is dead. This 
man whose child is dead is in deep sorrow. 

23. The ship leaps, it is said, from billow to billow. 

24. " In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it eats the 
frogs and worms that would injure the dikes." 

25. It may be placed last in a sentence : ' ' they never fail who die 
in a just cause." It may be placed first (an inverted construction): 
" who noble ends by noble means obtain*, that man is great indeed." 
It may follow the object : " I know a b ink whereon the wild thyme 
blow*." It may follow the subject : " he that hath wife and children 
hath given hostages to fortune." 

26. Last: " He died a* he lived." First: "when I iras a child 1 
thought as a child." Incorporated in the sentence: Although the 

wound soon healed, yet, as he ran, he shrieked for pain. 

(•Participial \f' n<icr 

«■ ^HSSS-jgSSaS? Modification. Number 

[Abstract | Rule of syntax 

28. In their use and office in the sentence (subject, complement, 
object, possessive, or appositive modifier); iu their modifications to 
denote gender, number, case. 

29. By others' faults wise men correct their own. 

30. Personal pronouns compounded with self and used reflexively. 

31. Upon the presence or absence of sex in that which the noun 
names. 

32. The co-ordinating relative is equivalent to a pronoun and con- 
junction together: "I called on Henry, who told me what hap- 
pened" (and he). Who and which are thus used. In the sentence, 
The man that I called on, that is the relative of restriction. 

33. The above passage. 

34. Both have comparison, classification, and belong to other 
words. They differ in their mode of qualification, adjectives limit- 
ing nouns, and adverbs verbs, etc. 

13 



GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 21 5 

35. Numeral adjectives which tell how many fold : single, double, 
twofold. 

36. Yes and no. They never modify other words like adverbs, but 
are in themselves complete answers. 

37. By suffixes, er, est, ishly, some ; by compounding two adjec- 
tives. 

38. Those of place and motion : before, above, in, out, up, down, 
below, etc. 

39. Those that come from pronominal roots and are divided into 
what may be termed her, they, 10I10 classes— here, hither, hence; 
there, thither, thence, then, thus, the; where, whither, whence, when, 
ichy, how. 

40. A pronominal adjective takes the place of a noun and an ad- 
jective. A pronoun is used instead of a noun. 

41. " What by entreaty and what by threatening I succeeded." 
" We meet but to part." 

42. Definition (b), because it covers all the various uses of the verb. 

43. By omitting the object when the intention is to make promi- 
nent the act : " She reads well;" "Men build and time pulls down ;" 
" I wash, bake, brew, scour, and do all myself." 

44. It is not. Mode is the expression of the action in regard to 
the subject, and the infinitive has none. The infinitive is, in real- 
ity, a verbal noun. 

45. The second, because these names denote more clearly the 
time. 

46. Drunk may be an adjective. Hanged means suspended by 
the neck until dead ; hung means suspended merely. 

47. The participle leans to the adjective, the infinitive to the 
noun. " I am studying" means " I am in the state of studying;" 
but " I can (to) study" means "I am able to do the thing called 
studying." 

48. He must have been suffering all this time. 

49. Of the indicative and the infinitive : " I knew he could (to) 
Jearn it." Of the subjunctive and the infinitive: "I should hardly 
(to) believe you even then." Of the imperative and the infinitive : 
" May you (to) prosper." 

50. One which has an object denoting the same person or thing as 
the subject : " He washed himself." 

51. The former is subjunctive, implying a mere supposition con- 
trary to fact. The latter is indicative, implying that the condition 
is assumed as a fact, and the conclusion built upon it. 

52. Shall meant obligation or debt. Chaucer says, "The faith I 
shall to God." Will meant intention or resolution on the part of the 
agent, he being free to do as he pleases. " I will not go" implies 
that I choose not to go. 

53. When it implies moral obligation and is combined with the 



2l6 GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 

present infinitive. It is past when combined with the past in- 
finitive. 

54. Perfect ; pluperfect. 

55. " If he is your general, why do you not obey him?" " If he 
be your general, you will have to fight in the East." 

56. Ideas of space, time, cause, means, purpose, etc., which con- 
trol and limit the mind, are especially expressed by prepositions, 
whose office it is to show how such ideas affect or are related to one 
another ; hence their name, relation-words. 

57. They agree in their office of uniting words and phrases, and 
differ in the power of government. 

58. On the contrary, as well as, on the other hand, as soon as. 

59. That. 

60. Then, yet, as, but, since. If it modifies the verb it is an ad- 
verb, but if it joins the dependent clause to the independent it is a 
conjunction. Such words frequently perform both offices, and are 
then called conjunctive adverbs. 

61. (M is used in exclamations of sorrow or surprise. is used in 
direct address (the vocative case). 

62. " I know what ails you." " What ails you ?" " What news 
from Genoa ?" " What with the rain and wind I was nearly 
drenched." " What! take my money and my life too ?" 

63. They are alike. Alike implies two things, without both. 

64. I have a number of them. The adverb quite cannot modify 
a noun. 

65. My brother, my sister, and I will come. The compound per- 
sonal pronouns are used for emphasis, but never take the place of 
the simple pronouns. 

66. Did mankind but love one another, it would be something. 
The reciprocal pronoun each other is used in reference to two ; one 
another, to any number. 

67. I really wished to know. The adverb must precede the word 
to which it belongs. 

68. I icould rather not do it. The idiom is simplified by suppos- 
ing " would do" a potential form, modified by rather. 

69. If I be not mistaken the number is twenty-six. The subjunc- 
tive is needed because doubt is expressed. The numeral should be 
written. 

70. I have compassion on the multitude because they have con- 
tinued with me three days. Present-perfect tense required, because 
the action was begun in past time and continued into the present. 

71. A hasty reading would not enable one to discover that this is 
an essay. An unchangeable truth is expressed by the present tense. 

72. Destitute of principle, he did not regard his family, his 
friends, or his reputation. Neither, nor, refer to two objects of com- 
parison. 



GRAMMAR FOR FIRST GRADE. 2\y 

73. When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune affects us, the 
sincerity of friendship is tested. Several singular subjects uncon- 
nected, or connected by or, require a singular verb. 

74. The committee were divided in their opinions. When refer- 
ence is had to the individuals composing the collection, the collec- 
tive noun is considered plural. 

75. Each of them in his turn receives the benefits to which he is 
entitled. The distributive pronouns are singular subjects. 

76. Those things in which I will appear unto thee. Relative pro- 
nouns are not limited by articles and adjectives. 

77. The atmosphere being clear, and my sight good, etc. Abso 
lute phrases are required here, as adverbial modifiers of the predi- 
cate. 

78. The fact of my being a stranger to him does not justify his 
conduct. Being is a verbal noun limited by my, and the object of 
of. Me is not the object of of. 

79. I should be delighted if you would go. Should in the first per- 
son denotes that the assertion depends on some condition beyond the 
speaker's will. 

80. The former implies volition, and is equivalent to I should wish 
to do it ; the latter expresses simple futurity, without reference to 
the will of the subject, implying, 1 might not wish to do it, but I shall 
do it, nevertheless. 

81. The first expression shows that the author is following up the 
plan to which he has committed himself ; the latter indicates a new 
start, and hence the auxiliary of resolution is used. 

82. The former implies a future action independent of the desires 
of the subject ; the latter, the desire of the subject independent of 
its fulfilment. 



2l8 ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 



CHAPTER V. 

ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 
jfor £l)tr& Gyrate. 

1. Define orthography. 

2. How do the letters and elementary sounds of the 
language compare as to number? 

3. What are vocals (tonics), sub-vocals (sub-tonics), 
and aspirates (atonies) ? Give several examples of each. 

4. Name and define the vowels and consonants. 

5. State when w and y are vowels. 

6. Which of the letters are respectively labials, dentals, 
palatals, and nasals, and on what is the classification 
founded? 

7. What are the semi- vowels, liquids, and mutes? 

8. What is a syllable? 

9. Classify words according to the number of syllables. 

10. What is a primitive word? A derivative word? 
Compound word? Give an example of each. 

11. Define the terms prefix and suffix, and give ex- 
amples. 

12. What is a root? Give example of a word having a 
root. 

13. What are diphthongs and triphthongs? Into what 
classes are they divided? Give an example of each. 

14. What is syllabication? 

15. What is essential in every syllable? 



ORTHOEPY FOR THIRD GRADE. 2IQ 

16. What rules of spelling are observed in forming ex- 
pelled from expel, traveler from travel, happily from 
happy, dying from die, drying from dry, peaceable from 
peace, inference from infer, equipped from equip? 

17. What is the rule for dividing a word at the end of 
a line? 

18. What are cognates (correlatives)? Give two ex- 
amples. 

19. Give the distinction in use between the apostrophe 
and period in connection with abbreviated words. 

20. Write the customary contraction of will not, shall 
not, cannot, does not, never, it is, ever, should not, ma- 
dame, mademoiselle, messieurs. 

21. What are the organs of speech? 



ORTHOEPY", 

Remarks. — A knowledge of the correct pronunciation of words, 
according to some accepted standard, is now very generally de- 
manded as aD essential part of a teacher's qualifications. 

Of the words most usually mispronounced, a large number are 
here given. These have been selected as occurring in sentences, as 
it is believed that the correct pronunciation of a word as it occurs 
in a sentence is remembered easier than if printed as a single word. 

Pronounce correctly the italicized words in the following sen- 
tences: 

22. All their amusements were intolerably dull and 
decorous. 

23. What a deal of secrets Amelia learned which old 
Mrs. Pinkerton herself had no cognizance of. 

2-4. Miss Saltire was too cold for a confidant. 

25. In those booths of Vanity Fair, people seldom do 
miss each other. 

26. The sons whom he had plunged into dishonor and 
poverty — the daughters whom he had inveigled into per- 
dition. 



220 ORTHOEPY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

27. And the moral to be inferred from Mrs. Bute's tale 
was that the knavery of the pair was irremediable. 

28. The abdomen is well guarded by the thorax. 

29. Where are the jugular veins? 

30. Describe the perspiratory glands. 

31. Copyright spoils the native aroma of the popular 
romance. 

32. "In the bivouac of life." 

33. He had learned to despise bombast and tinsel. 

34. He advances strong and irrefragable arguments. 

35. "The cat's dark silhouette on the wall 

A coucliant tiger's seemed to fall." 

36. The mirage loomed across her way. 

37. It was a place where a tree had been scathed by 
lightning. 

38. " The flagon last night," thought he, "has addled 
my poor head sadly." 

39. "And lichens grow and inconspicuously blos- 
som." 

40. "And still with a voice of dolorous pitch, 

She sang the ' Song of the Shirt.' " 

41. " Space for his lake, his park's extended bounds, 

Space for his horses, equipage and hounds." 

42. The crystalline lens is situated immediately behind 
the iris. 

43. Quinine is the general remedy for malaria. 

44. Chlorine gas has a great affinity for hydrogen. 

45. "And he paused, reflecting on his own consum- 
mate hypocrisy." 

46. " Could any sensible man suppose that peace wasn't 
really concluded, after we'd actually sung Te Deum for 
it, sir?" 

47. "Jos. Sedley was splendid. He was better than 
ever; his shirt frill flaunted gorgeously out of his varie- 
gated waistcoat" 



ORTHOEPY FOR THIRD GRADE. 221 

48. "Buoyant my limbs, and keen and bright my 

glance, 
For that brief space I was a boy again." 

49. "And lo! she had changed, — in a few short 

hours 
Her bouquet had become a garland of flowers. " 

50. " Can'st thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades?" 

51. " I stood within the Coliseum's wall, 

'Midst the chief relics of all-mighty Rome." 

52. I would rather lire in squalor than accept support 
from a dishonest man. 

53. "Be wise to-day; 'tis madness to defer: 

Next day the fatal precedent will plead." 

54. Amotion to adjourn takes precedence of all other 
business. 

55. Cinchona is another name for Peruvian bark. 

56. "From his half itinerant life also, he was a kind 
of travelling gazette." 

57. " This prostration and sweet unrepining obedience 
exquisitely touched George Osborne." 

58. He was making a tremendous sacrifice in marrying 
this young creature. 

59. But upon these hymeneal projects, Mr. Dobbin 
went to seek John Sedley, where the broken-down old 
gentleman used to betake himself daily, write letters, and 
show you those worn greasy documents offering condo- 
lence and support." 

60. "That in the captain's but a choleric word, 

Which in the soldier is flat blasphemy" 

61. I knew once a very covetous, sordid fellow, who 
used to say, Take care of the pence, for the pounds will 
take care of themselves." 

62. " Where perhaps some beauty lies, 

The cynosure of neighboring eyes." 

63. "Bid me discourse, I will enchant thine ear " 



222 ORTHOEPY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

64. ' ' A little bench of heedless bishops here, 

And there a chancellor in embryo." 

65. "Joys too exquisite to last, 

And yet more exquisite when past." 

66. "Bebecca laughed in her face with a horrid, sar- 
castic demoniacal laugh." 

67. " It was bruited about that he was admitted into 
Dr. SwisktaiFs academy." 

68. Ammonia gas is irres pi ruble. 

69. There's not a fitter officer though he is not an 
Adonis. 

70. A head appeared between the interstices of the 
shutters. 

71. A wise ruler does not subject a good subject to un- 
necessary taxation. 

72. In the survey you are undertaking, do not omit to 
survey that Smith plot adjoining the town lot. 

73. He extolled his wares beyond their worth. 

74. "To profess regard while inwardly full of con- 
tempt is the action of a sycophant ." 

75. "I know a bank whereon the wild thyme grows." 

76. "Monastic brotherhood, upon rock aerial." 

77. "Lo, where the stage, the poor degraded stage, 

Holds its warped mirror to a (japing age." 

78. "Every man is the architect of his own for- 

tune." 

79. "I have lost the immortal part of myself, and what 
remains is bestial." 

80. " A bevy of fair women." 

81. " A falcon, towering in her pride of place, 

Was by a mousing owl hawked at and killed." 

82. "No Indian prince hath to his palace 

More followers than a thief to the gallows." 

83. " Or I will scarce think you have swam in a gon- 
dola." 



ORTHOEPY FOR THIRD GRADE. 223 

84. " Of all the griefs that harass the distrest, 

Sure the most bitter is a scornful jest." 

85. " Where'er we tread, 'tis haunted, holy ground." 

86. " Hypocrisy is the homage vice pays to virtue." 

87. Mark the syllable taking the primary accent in 
these words: arbutus; enervating; cognomen; coadju- 
tors; combative; lyceum; museum; allopathic; homoe- 
opathic; allopathy; homoeopathy; acclimated; condolence; 
monastery; perfume (noun); perfume (verb); extant; al- 
bumen; aspirant; bitumen; commandant. 

88. Indicate, with the proper diacritic marks, the 
sound of each of the italicized letters in the following 
words: connoisseur; surtotrt; elegiac; erract; faucet; per- 
fume; soot; what; bouquet; haunted; exhaust; c«rb/ne; 
franchise; altercation; bronc/iitis; forward; past; geyser; 
lithe; nasal. 



224 ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 



ANSWERS TO ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY, 
THIRD GRADE. 

1. Orthography is the correct writing or spelling of words by 
means of letters. 

2. There are twenty six letters and forty sounds, simple and com- 
pound. 

3. Pure tones produced by the voice with but slight use of the 
organs of speech; tonas produced by the voice modified by the organs 
of speech; mere breathing modified by Ihe organs of speech. Vo- 
cals, (1, e, I, b ; sub-vocals, b, d. g, I, m, n ; aspirates,/, h, p, ch, sh. 

4. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. They 
are the letters that represent the vocal elements and form sylla- 
bles by themselves. The consonants are b, c, d, f, g, 7i, j, k, I, m, 
n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z. They are the letters that represent the 
sub-vocais or aspirate elements. 

5. In all cases except when either precedes a vowel heard in the 
same syllable. 

6. The labials are b, p, /, r, and m ; the dentals, cl, t. s, z, j, g 
when equivalent to j, and c when equivalent to s ; the palatals, k, 
g, r, I, q, and c when equivalent to k ; the nasals, m and n. They 
are classified according to the organs by which they are produced. 

7. The semi- vowels are/, h, j, I, m, n, r, s, r, w, x, y, z, and g 
and c soft ; the liquids are I, in, n, r ; the mutes arc b, d, k, p, q, t, 
c and g hard. 

8. A word or part of a word uttered by one impulse of the voice. 

9. A word of one syllable is a monosyllable ; two syllables, a dis- 
syllable ; three syllables, a trisyllabic ; four or more syllables a poly- 
syllable. 

10. One that cannot be traced to any other word in the language 
for its origin ; example, make. A word formed from a primitive 
word ; example, doubtful. A word formed of two simple words ; 
example, Anglo-Saxon. 

11. A prefix is a syllable placed before a word ; as, disobey. A 
suffix is a syllable placed after a word ; as, obey-ing. 

12. A word from which other words are formed. Conduct (the 
root induct). 

13. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable ; a 
triphthong, thfe union of three vowels in one syllable. Diphthongs 
are divided into proper and improper. Example of proper diph- 
thong, voice ; of improper, beat. 

14. Separating a word into its syllables. 



ORTHOEPY FOR THIRD GRADE. 22$ 

15. It must contain at least one vowel. 

16. Expelled . a dissyllable accented on the last syllable, ending in 
a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, doubles the final 
consonant on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel. — Traveler : ihe 
I is not doubled because the word is not accented on the last sylla- 
ble. — Happily: words endiug in y preceded by a consonant change 
y into i on adding a suffix. — Dying : silent e is dropped before add- 
ing a suffix beginning with a vowel, and the i is changed into y to 
prevent doubling the i. — Drying . final y remains unchanged when a 
suffix beginning with i is added. — Peaceable : words ending in ce 
or ge retain the e before the suffixes able and ous. — Inference : the r 
is not doubled because the accent in the derivative is not on the 
same syllable as in the primitive. — Equipped, accented on the last 
syllable, ends in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel 
after qu, hence the final consonant is doubled. 

17. Divide it according to its syllables. 

18. Cognates are letters whose sounds are made by the same organs 
of speech in a similar position : / is a cognate of v, and k of g. 

19. If part of the word is omitted and the final letter retained, as 
in rec'd, the apostrophe is used ; when the last letters of a word are 
omitted, as in Jan., the period is generally used. 

20. "Won't, shan't, can't, doesn't, ne'er, it's, e'er, shouldn't, Mme., 
Mile., Messrs. 

21. The lips, teeth, tongue, and palate, 

22. De-co'rous. 

23. Cog'ni-zance. 

24. Con-fi-dant'. 

25. Booths. 

26. (Diz-hon'or), (in-v5'gl). 

27. Ir re-mS'di-a-ble. 

28. Ab-do'men. 

29. Jug'u-lar. 

30. Per-splr'a-tory. 

31. Aroma, ro-mance f . 

32. (BTv'wak). 

33. (Bum'bast). 

34. Ir-ref'ra-ga-ble. 

35. (STl'oo-et), couch'ant 

36. (Mi-razh'). 

37. (Skathed). 

38. Flag'on. 

39. (Li'kens). 

40. Dol'or-ous. 

41. (Ek'wi-pej). 



226 ORTHOEPY FOR THIRD GRADE. 

42. Crystal-line. 

43. Quinine. 

44. Chlorine. 

45. Con sum-mate, hy-poc'ri sy. 

46. Te D5 urn. 

47. Flaunted, va ri-e-gSt-ed, waistcoat. 

48. Buoyant, (a-gen '). 

49. (Boo-ka). 

50. (Ple'ya-dez). 

51. C61-i-s5'um. 

52. Squalor [Imperial Dictionary], (diz-hSn'est). 

53. Precedent. 

54. Pre-cGd ence. 

55. (Sin ko na). 
5G. Itinerant. 

57. Ex'qui-site-ly. 

58. Tre-mSn'dous, (sac'ri-flz). 

59. Hymeneal, projects, (yuzd), (grBazy), con-do lence. 

60. Choleric, blas'phe-my. 

61. (Kuv'et-us). 

62. (STn'o-shur). 

63. Discourse'. 

64. Em bry o. 

65. (Eks'kwT-zit). 

66. Dem-o-nl'ac-al. 

67. Bruited. 

68. Ir-rSs'pi-ra-ble. 

69. Adonis. 

70. In'ter-stfc-es. 

71. Subject', sub'ject. 

72. Survey, sur-vey'. 

73. Extol led. 

74. Syc'o-phant. 

75. (Tim). 

76. A-e'ri-al. 

77. Gap'ing. 

78. Ar'chi-tect. 

79. (Best'yal). 

80. Bevy. 

81. (Faw'kn), mouz'ing. 

82. (Ind'yan), (gal'lus). 



ORTHOEPY FOR THIRD GRADE. 22 J 

83. G5n'do-la. 

84. Harass. 

85. Haunted. 

86. Homage. 

87. Arbutus, enervating, cognomen, coadju'tors, com'bative, 
lyce urn, museum, allopath ic, homoeopath ic, allopathy, homce 
op'athy, acclimated, coudo lence, monastery, per fume (noun), per- 
fume (verb), ex taut, albumen, aspirant, bitumen, commandant'. 

88. Connoisseur, surtout, elegiac, exact, faucet, perfume, soot, 
what, bouquet, haunted, exhaust, carbine, franchise, altercation, 
bronchitis, forward, past, geyser, lithe, nasal. 



228 PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 
jFor Secontr ©ratre. 

THE BONES. 

1. What is the skeleton? Of how many bones is it 
composed? 

2. Of what use is the skeleton? 

3. Name three natural divisions of the bones of the 
skeleton. 

4. What is meant by the extremities? 

5. Name the bones of the head. 

6. What peculiarity have the bones of the skull? 

7. How many ribs are there? 

8. What are vertebrae, and how many are there? 

9. Name the bones of the upper extremities. 

10. Name the bones of the lower extremities. 

11. Name the bones of the pelvis. 

12. What classification of the bones is made with re- 
gard to form ? 

13. Draw a longitudinal and a transverse section of 
one of the long bones, and explain its structure. 

14. Of what two parts is bone composed? 

15. Of what use is each part? 

16. In what ways can these parts be obtained separate 
from each other? 

17. What are the proportions of these parts in child- 
hood, in middle life, and in old aare? 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 22g 

18. What is the marrow of the bone, and of what use 
is it? 

19. What is the periosteum, and what purpose does it 
serve? 

20. What are movable joints? What immovable joints? 

21. Into what four kinds are movable joints divided-? 
Give an example of each kind. 

22. What are ligaments, and what purpose do they 
serve? 

23. What are cartilages, and of what use are they? 

24. Define synovial membrane, and tell where found. 

25. What is the patella, and what purpose does it 
serve? 

26. How are bones nourished? 

27. What cavities are there in the skeleton? 

28. Describe the process by which a broken bone is re- 
paired. 

THE MUSCLES AND THE INTEGUMENT. 

29. What are the muscles? 

30. Distinguish between voluntary and involuntary 
muscles. 

31. Describe fully the structure of the muscles. 

32. State the difference between the motions called 
flexion and extension. 

33. What are tendons or sinews? 

34. In what cases are the muscles without tendons? 

35. Locate the following muscles: biceps, triceps, del- 
tors, sartorius, pectoralis, erector spinse, gastrocnemius, 
adductor, rectus femoris. 

36. What is the chief constituent of muscle sub- 
stance? 

37. What other use than organs of motions have the 
muscles? 

38. What is necessary for muscles to be healthy and 
well developed? 



230 PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 

39. What results from violent and spasmodic exercise? 

40. What direct effect does alcohol often have upon 
the muscles? 

41. About how many muscles are there in the body? 

42. What is meant by the integument or skin? 

43. Describe the structure of the skin, naming its 
parts? 

44. What office does the skin perform? 

45. Describe the nail and its uses. 

46. Describe the hair and its uses. 

47. What offices do the nails and hair perform? 

48. Account for the difference of complexion in differ- 
ent persons. 

49. What effect has the sun upon the complexion? 

50. What is the cause of freckles? 

51. Describe the sebaceous glands, and tell what pur- 
pose they serve. 

52. Describe the perspiratory glands. 

53. Distinguish between insensible and sensible per- 
spiration. 

54. How may it be shown that insensible perspiration 
is always taking place? 

55. What purpose does perspiration serve? 

56. What is the effect of checking the flow of perspira- 
tion? 

57. Why is bathing important to health? 

58. When should one bathe? 

59. Of what value is soap? 

FOODS. 

60. What is meant by the term food? 

61. Give several examples of each of the following 
classes of food: 1. Proteids or nitrogenous. 2. Fats. 
3. Amyloids. 4. Minerals. 

62. What are the principal chemical constituents of 
food? 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 23 1 

63. Distinguish between organic and inorganic food- 
substances. 

64. Of what importance is salt as a food?, Lime? 
Water? Iron? 

65. What objections are there to the use of veal and 
pork as articles of food? 

66. Why are peas and beans valuable food? 

67. What food contains all the elements necessary for 
complete nutrition? 

68. Why is wheat so valuable a food? 

69. Why is a mixed diet necessary? 

70. What are condiments, and what substances come 
under this head? 

71. Of what value is sugar as a food? 

72. What properties does oatmeal possess as a food? 

73. State the use of cooking food. 

74. Why is frying objectionable? 

75. Of what value are tea and coffee? 

76. Of what value are cocoa and chocolate? 

77. What value do fruits possess as articles of diet? 

1 8. What danger arises from conducting water through 
pipes? 

79. What purpose does lime serve in the body, and 
how is it obtained? 

80. Why are skim- milk, buttermilk, and whey useful ? 

81. Why are potatoes especially valuable as food? 

82. Why should an over-abundance of starchy food be 
avoided? 

83. What do the grains contain besides starch? 

84. Describe fish, oysters, clams, crabs, and lobsters as 
articles of diet? 

85. Why is rice so valuable a food? 

86. What general difference is there between stimu- 
lants and narcotics? 

87. Can you name a substance that is both a stimulant 
and a narcotic? 



2%2 PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 

DIGESTION. 

88. What is meant by digestion? 

89. Draw an outline diagram of the alimentary canal, 
and name its parts. 

90. Name the organs of mastication and deglutition. 

91. Draw a diagram of the permanent teeth on one 
side of the upper jaw, and give their names. 

92. State the differences in number and character be- 
tween the milk-teeth and the permanent teeth. 

93. Describe the teeth. 

94. Why should the teeth be brushed after eating? 

95. What effect has tartar upon the teeth? 

96. What is insalivation? 

97. Describe the salivary glands. 

98. What effect has saliva upon the food? 

99. Locate the pharynx, and state what opens into it. 

100. Describe the operation of swallowing. 

101. What is ptyaline, and what power has it upon 
starch? 

102. How are the salivary glands affected by tobacco- 
chewing? 

103. What is mucous membrane? 

104. What effect has alcohol on the mucous mem- 
brane? 

105. What is the oesophagus? 

106. Describe fully the stomach. 

107. What is the effect upon the stomach of food re- 
ceived into it? 

108. What are the properties of the gastric juice? 

109. What is the temperature of the stomach? 

110. Describe the glands of the stomach. 

111. How does the gastric juice become mixed with 
the food ? 

112. What effect has alcohol on the gastric juice? 

113. Describe the pylorus and its action. 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 233 

114. What kinds of food are digested in the stomach? 

115. What is chyme? 

116. Why is eating fast injurious? 

117. How are the intestines divided? Describe the 
small intestine. 

118. What is an emulsion? 

119. What digestion takes place in the intestines? 

120. How is the movement of food in the intestines 
effected? 

121. What is chyle? How does it differ from chyme? 

122. What is the object of the mucous membrane of 
the intestine? How is it increased in extent? 

123. Describe the villi, and state what they contain. 

124. Describe the lacteals. 

125. What effect has alcohol on the intestines? 

126. What are the lymphatics? 

Vll. Of what use are the follicles in the mucous mem 
brane of the intestines? 

128. What secretions enter the intestine near the py- 
lorus ? 

129. Where is the liver situated, and what offices does 
it perform? 

130. What effect has alcohol on the liver? 

131. Describe the large intestine, the caecum, and its 
appendage. 

132. What effect has alcohol on the kidneys? 

133. What do you understand by absorption? 

134. What circumstances retard digestion? 

135. What effect has opium upon digestion? 

CIRCULATION. 

136. Of what use is the blood? 

137. What proportion of the weight of the body is es- 
timated to be blood? 

138. What is plasma? Of what two parts is it com 
posed? 



234 PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 

139. Of what use is each part? 

140. Describe the corpuscles of the blood. 

141. Draw a diagram of the heart, and name its parts. 

142. What relation does the heart bear to the rest of 
the circulating apparatus? 

143. What difference is there between the arteries and 
veins in structure? 

144. What is the pulse? 

145. How does venous blood differ from arterial? 

146. Describe the valves of the veins, and tell why 
these valves are needed. 

147. Why is it more dangerous to wound an artery 
than a vein? 

148. Describe the aorta. 

149. Through what means is the blood provided with 
new material and relieved of the old material? 

150. Describe the action of the heart. 

151. What are the capillaries, and what service do they 
perform? 

152. Speak of the rapidity of the blood's circulation. 

153. How are the movements of the heart affected? 

154. Does the blood flow to or from the heart in the 
arteries? In the veins? 

155. Where would you compress a bleeding artery to 
stop its flow? Where a vein? 

156. What is meant by assimilation? 

157. How are the nails, cartilages, and hair nourished? 

158. What immediate effect has alcohol on the heart? 

159. What change does it frequently cause in the sub- 
stance of the heart? 

160. What effect has alcohol upon the blood? 

161. What are the three desirable qualities in clothing? 

RESPIBATTON. 

162. What two objects are effected by the respiration? 

163. What are the organs of respiration? 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 235 

164. Describe the lungs. 

165. What is the pleura? 

166. Describe the trachea. The larynx. 

167. What are the bronchial tubes, and what their 
office? 

168. To what is the spongy lightness of the lungs 
owing? 

169. What are the cilia, and what use do they probably 
serve ? 

1T0. Describe the movements necessary for an act of 
perfect respiration. 

171. What effect has hurried respiration on the heart? 

172. What is the office of the epiglottis? 

173. What is the diaphragm, and what office does it 
fulfil? 

174. For what purpose is air received into the lungs? 

175. What is the constitution of atmospheric air? 

176. What is the condition of the air that has just 
been breathed ? 

177. How can it be shown a class that carbonic acid is 
exhaled from the lungs? 

178. What effects have carbonic-acid gas? 

179. How can it be shown that water- vapor is exhaled? 

180. Explain how the blood is changed from a blue to 
a red color. 

181. If the expansion of the chest is restrained in any 
way, what influence is exerted upon the air cells? 

182. Name two diseases of the lungs. 

183. What are the effects of breathing impure air? 

184. What is the temperature of the body? 

185. Does alcohol enable a person to resist cold? 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

186. State fully what is meant by vegetable functions, 
and name them. 

187. What is the object of the nervous system? 



236 PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOXD GRADE. 

188. What two kinds of nerve-tissue are there? Which 
is the more abundant? 

189. Where is each located? 

190. What are nerve-filaments? What are nerves? 
What the neurilemma? 

191. What is the function of nerves? 

192. Describe the gray matter; the ganglia, and their 
function. 

193. What three divisions has the brain? 

194. How are the brain and spinal cord divided longi- 
tudinally? 

195. Name and describe the three coverings of the 
brain and spinal cord. 

196. Describe the cerebrum and its hemispheres. 

197. What do the convolutions indicate? 

198. What relation have the hemispheres with each 
other and with the body? 

199. What is the office of the cerebrum? 

200. Describe the spinal cord. 

201. Which part conveys sensation? Which part 
motor impulses? 

202. What are the spinal nerves? 

203. Which of their roots convey sensation? 

204. Which convey motor impulses? 

205. What is the effect of irritating nerves midway in 
their course? 

206. What are the cranial nerves? Whence do they 
issue? How many are there? 

207. What is reflex action, and what is essential for its 
performance? 

208. When are reflex actions recognized by the person 
in whom they occur? 

209. How does the use of alcohol affect the brain? 

210. How does the use of alcohol affect the will? 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR FIRST GRADE. 



237 



jfov jFirst (Sratre, 

THE BONES. 

1. Why is the spinal column curved? 

2. Which of the ball-and-socket joints is most easily 
dislocated? Why? 

3. How are the vertebra? bound together. 
•1. What is the thorax? 

5, What are the Haversian canals? 

6. What is a centre of ossification ? 

T. Why is a person taller od getting up in the morning 
than on going to bed at night? 

8. Why are there prominences and why depressions 
upon bones? 

9. How is the spinal canal formed? 

10. What is the object of the downward slope of the 
ribs? 

11 When is entire ossification of the bones completed? 

12. Name several causes of curvature of the spine, 

THE MUSCLES AND THE INTEGUMENT. 

13. Define a fibre. A tissue. 

14. What are fasciculi? 

15. What is the aponeurosis? 

16. What are sphincter muscles? 

17. What processes take place during sleep? 

18. What effects follow insufficient sleep? 

19. What can you say of the Achilles tendon? 

20. Give a scheme of exercises to be practised daily by 
an average person, and tell what muscles each motion 
calls into action. 

21. Name several agents or causes producing muscular 
contractility. 

22. What are the papillae, and what peculiar power re- 
sides in them? 



238 PHYSIOLOGY FOR FIRST GRADE. 

23. What is an albino? 

24. What connection has the condition of the skin 
with the general health? 

FOODS. 

25. What is the proportionate amount of water in the 
body? 

26. What are trichinae? What safeguard should be 
taken against them? 

27. AVhat results from a diet deficient of fat? 

28. How does Indian corn diifer from wheat and rye? 

29. What is the percentage of alcohol in brandy? In 
rum? In whisky? In gin? In wine? 

30. How do beer, ale, and porter compare in the 
amount of alcohol they contain? 

31. Is alcohol a food? 

32. What is the active principle of tea? Of coffee? 

DIGESTION. 

33. Name the salivary glands, and give their location. 

34. How are fluids swallowed? 

35. Why is more saliva than usual needed when one is 
speaking? 

36. How has the knowledge of the working of the 
human stomach been largely ascertained? 

37. What is the peritoneum? 

38. Trace a mouthful of food through the alimentary 
canal, showing what changes occur. 

39. What becomes of the water taken into the stomach? 

40. What is the cause of thirst? 

41. What are the accessory organs of digestion? 

CIRCULATION. 

42. What is the pericardium? 

43. Whet and by whom was the circulation of the 
blood discovered? 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR FIRST GRADE. 239 

44. Where are the jugular veins? 

45. By which side and parts of the heart is pure blood 
transmitted? 

46. How? 

47. What is the function of the red corpuscles? 

48. To what is the coagulation of the blood due, and of 
what use is coagulation? 

49. What is a hemorrhage? 

50. What is the link between the digestive and the 
circulating systems? 

RESPIRATION. 

51. How is voice produced, and upon what do its modi- 
fications depend? 

52. Why are the lungs not fastened to the walls of the 
chest? 

53. How long does it take every particle of air in the 
lungs to be expelled and new air to take its place ? 

54. What would result were the entire capacity of the 
lungs constantly used? 

55 . How are the blood and the air kept from mingling 
in the lungs while they are brought so near together that 
the air changes the blood? 

56. What changes does the blood undergo in the pul- 
monary capillaries by respiration? What changes take 
place in the nutritive capillaries? 

57. How is water prevented from getting into the 
lungs in any quantity? 

58. How is the temperature of the body maintained? 

59. What purpose does nitrogen serve in the air? 

GENERAL. 

60. Define anatomy, physiology, and hygiene. 

61. Give the technical names to these: gullet, wind- 
pipe, knee-pan, large intestine, small intestine, shoulder- 
olade, collar-bone, breast-bone. 



240 PHYSIOLOGY FOR FIRST GRADE. 

62. Where is the seat of vision? 

63. What is the distinction between organic and in- 
organic matter? 

G4. Why will holding the nose make nauseating medi- 
cines less disagreeable to take? 

65. In what instance is impure blood conveyed by 
arteries? 

66. State some particulars in which the structure of 
man differs from that of the inferior animals. 

67. What is the effect of tobacco on the system? 

68. Mention some of the hurtful effects of snuff. 

69. Why are cigarettes more injurious than tobacco 
used in other forms? 

70. What vital processes are denominated vegetative 
functions, and for what reason? 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE, 24 1 



ANSWERS TO PHYSIOLOGY, SECOND GRADE. 

1. The bony framework of the body ; composed of 212 bones. 

2. To give firmness to the body. 
3 Head, trunk, and limbs. 

4. Arms and hands ; legs and feet. 

5. Frontal, occipital, parietal, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid, nasal, 
malar, lachrymal, palate, turbinated, maxillary, vomer, malleus, in- 
cus, stapes. 

6. They are formed of two plates, with a soft cushion between. 

7. Twenty-four. 

8. They are divisions of the spinal column, and are twenty-six in 
number. 

9. Clavicle, scapula, humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacar- 
pals, phalanges. 

10. Femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges. 

11. Ossa innominata, sacrum, coccyx. 

12. Long bones, flat bones, and short, or square, bones. 

13. The outer portion of a bone is dense and firm, but the inner 
part is spongy, and, in the case of the long bones, filled with mar- 
row. 

14. Animal and mineral matter. 

15. The animal matter makes the bones pliable and elastic. The 
mineral matter affords strength and firmness. 

16. By burning the bone the animal portion is consumed. If a 
bone is placed in dilute acid, the mineral portion will be dissolved. 

17. In childhood the mineral portion of the bones is about one 
half, in middle life four fifths, and in old age seven eighths. 

18. A fatty substance which affords nourishment to the bones. 

19. The covering of the bones. It is a protection, and also affords 
a connection between the ligaments and the bones. 

20. Movable joints are those that allcw motion between two con- 
nected bones. The immovable joints do not allow movement. 

21. Ball-and-socket joints, such as is found in the hip-joint. 
Hinge-joints, as seen in the elbow. Pivot joints of two kinds, as 
shown in the joining of the atlas and axis, and in the joint between 
the radius and the humerus. 

22. They are stout cords that bind the bones together. 

23. Tough tissue which covers the ends of the bones, thus form- 
ing a cushion to protect them. Cartilage is also found in various 
parts of the body. 



242 PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 

24. This is a sac found between the ends of bones, which secretes 
a lubricating fluid. 

25. A small bone of the knee, placed over the joint to protect it. 

26. By the blood. 

27. AbdomiDal and throracic. 

28. The blood carries bone substance to the injured part, which 
is deposited there ; new bone is thus formed ; and in time the frac- 
ture is knit together. 

29. The organs which afford motion to the body. 

80. Voluntary muscles are under the control of the will ; the in- 
voluntary are not. 

31. Muscles are composed of bundles of fibres, which in turn are 
composed of fibrillae. The whole is covered by a sheath. 

32. Flexion is a state of contraction; and extension is relaxation. 

33. The extension of the sheath of the muscle. 
34 In the broad, flat muscles. 

35. In front of the upper arm ; on the back side of the upper arm ; 
extending from the upper arm to the breast ; used in crossing one 
thigh over the other ; from the breast to the inside of the arm ; 
moves the trunk backward ; used in moving the foot ; moves the 
thigh forward ; on the front of the thigh. 

36. Muscles contain myosin and a variety of proteid substances, 
fat, inorganic matter, phosphates, etc. 

37. Protection and warmth to the vital organs. 

38. Regular and properly directed exercise. 

39. The muscles are strained and thus injured. 

40. It often changes the muscles into fat, making them flabby and 
weak. 

41. About five hundred. 

42. The outer covering of the body. 

43. The skin consists of layers of cells. The outer layer is called 
the epidermis, and the deeper layer the dermis or cutis. 

44. It protects the nerves and capillaries. 

45. The nail is a modification of the skin, and gives firmness to 
the end of the finger. 

46 The hair grows from minute depressions in the skin. It 
serves as a protection to the head. 

47. The nails and hair protect the body. 

48. Complexion depends on the amount of pigment-cells in the 
cuticle, 

49. The sun develops this pigment. Hence the swarthy races of 
tropical climates. 

50. Hardened sebaceous matter beneath the skin. 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 243 

51. Small glands in the skin which secrete an oily substance 
which lubricates the skin. 

52. Small spiral tubes leading from the blood vessels to the sur- 
face of the body. 

53. Insensible perspiration is that which is constantly passing off 
from the pores, but which we cannot see. Sensible perspiration is 
that which can be seen and felt. 

54. If the hand is pressed for a moment against a pane of glass, 
moisture collects upon the glass. This moisture is insensible per- 
spiration from the body. 

55. It carries off the waste matter from the blood, and keeps the 
body at an even temperature by evaporation. 

56. Headache, fever, etc., will ensue. 

57. Bathing keeps the pores open, allowing the waste matter to 
escape freely from the body. 

58. At any time except immediately after eating. The morning 
is perhaps the best time. 

59. By uniting chemically with the oily substances exuded from 
the body, soap renders them soluble. 

60. That which nourishes the body. 

61. Proteids : gluten, albumen, casein, etc. Fats: butter, oil, 
etc. Amyloids : starch, sugar, etc. Minerals : salt, alkaline car- 
bonates, etc. 

62. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur. 

63. Organic food-substances are those which are derived from 
living forms, as animals, vegetables, etc. Inorganic food -substances 
are those derived from the mineral kingdom, as water, salt, lime, 
etc. 

64. Salt excites some of the secretions, as the gastric juice and the 
saliva. Lime enters into the composition of the bones, teeth, etc. 
Wfiter composes a large part of the substance of the body, and 
serves as the vehicle by which nourishment is conveyed to the differ- 
ent parts of the body. Iron serves as a strengthening element in the 
body. 

65. It requires too long a time for the stomach to digest them. 

66. Because they are rich in nitrogen. 

67. Milk. 

68. Because it is easy of digestion and contains nearly all the 
necessary elements which the body requires. 

69. That a due proportion of all the necessary elements may be 
obtained. 

70. Pungent materials, such as mustard, pepper, etc. 

71. It is readily soluble in water, which renders it very easy of di- 
gestion. 

72. It is rich in gluten and fat, and also contains starch and sugar. 



244 PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 

73. Food is made more digestible by cooking. 

74. In frying, the food is coated by an indigestible covering. 

75. They contain a small per cent of nutritive elements and are 
reserve stimulants. 

76. Cocoa and chocolate contain fatty matter, also albuminous 
and starchy materials. 

77. Fruits are valuable as food on account of their appetizing 
qualities and their ability to regulate the digestive organs. 

78. Water, being a universal solvent, will dissolve any metal with 
which it comes in contact. 

79. It gives firmness to the bones, and is obtained from water and 
from various foods. 

80. Because they contain casein. 

81. They contain a large amount of amyloids. 

82. It cannot be disposed of in the body, and produces skin-erup- 
tions, unduly increases the adipose tissue about the heart and other 
organs, thus impairing health. 

83. Gluten, lime, phosphorus, and some of the grains contain fats. 

84. Fresh fish is easily digested ; crabs and lobsters are less easily 
digested ; clams, either raw or cooked, are difficult to digest ; oysters 
are very easily digested raw. 

85. Because it takes but one hour to digest it. 

86. Stimulants act as excitants upon the nerves, while narcotics 
stupefy them. 

87. Opium. 

88. The preparation and change which takes place in food before 
it can be absorbed into the system. 

89. The mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intes- 
tine. 

90. Tongue and teeth. 

91. Incisor, canine, molar (single), molar (double). 

92. Milk-teeth, 20 ; permanent teeth, 32 ; the milk-teeth are softer 
than the permanent set. 

93. In the centre of a tooth there is a cavity, and about this the 
soft part of the tooth. Upon the outside is a hard substance called 
the enamel. 

94. To remove any particles of food that may be lodged between 
them. 

95. It loosens the gums, and makes them tender. 

96. The mixing the food with saliva during the act of chewing. 

97. The saliva is secreted by three pairs of glands situated upon 
the inside of the mouth. It is poured out when food is taken into 
the mouth. 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 245 

98. It renders the food moist and more easily acted on by the 
digestive fluids. It also changes starch to sugar. 

99. The pharynx is situated in the back part of the mouth. The 
Eustachian tubes open into it. 

100. The food is carried to the back part of the mouth by the 
tongue, and the walls of the pharynx and oesophagus, contracting be- 
hind it, force it down into the stomach. 

101. Ptyalin is the active property of the saliva, which changes 
starch to sugar. 

102. They are rendered less susceptible to the contact of food. 

103. The lining membrane of cavities opening upon the surface 
of the body. 

104. It acts as an irritant. 

105. The tube leading from the mouth to the stomach. 

106. The stomach is a muscular pouch, wider than deep, larger 
upon the left side than upon the right, opening into the oesophagus 
and the small intestine. 

107. It becomes congested, and its muscles contract and relax, 
giving a churning motion to its contents. 

108. The active property of gastric juice is pepsin, which changes 
the nitrogenous parts of the food so that they can pass into the cir- 
culation. 

109. About 98°. 

110. They are depressions in the inner coat, from which issues 
the gastric juice. 

111. By the churning motion before mentioned. 

112. It hinders its secretion by weakening the coating of the 
stomach. 

113. It is a valve situated at the right side of the stomach, which 
retains the food until it has been acted on by the gastric juice, and 
then allows it to pass into the intestine. 

114. The nitrogenous. 

115. The food after being acted on by the gastric juice. 

116. The food is not sufficiently masticated, and the saliva is not 
thoroughly mixed with it. 

117. They are divided into the large and the small intestines. The 
small intestine extends, with numerous convolutions, from the 
stomach to the beginning of the large intestine, in the lower part of 
the abdominal cavity. 

118. A fluid holding oil in suspension. 

119. The digestion of the amyloids. 

120. By the contraction of muscles in the walls of the intestines. 

121. The food in its liquid state after passing into the small in- 
testine is called chyle. It differs from chyme in composition and in 
being an emulsion. 



246 PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 

122. It serves as the lining to the intestine, and its surface is in- 
creased by its being thrown into folds. 

123. The villi are minute projections on the lining membrane of 
the intestine. They contain minute absorbent tubes called lacteals, 
and a network of blood-vessels. 

124. They are small tubes which convey the digested food from 
the intestine to the circulation. 

125. Alcohol is an irritant to the mucous membrane, and often de- 
stroys some of the secreting glands. 

126. They are small tubes which convey fluids from different parts 
of the body to the blood-vessels. 

127. They secrete substances necessary for digestion. 

128. The pancreatic juice and the bile. 

129. It is situated below and behind the right side of the stomach 
The liver takes water and fibrin from the blood, but adds corpuscles 
to it. Sugar is formed in the liver. 

130. Alcohol hardens the liver. 

131. The large intestine is divided into three parts, the ascending, 
transverse, and the descending colon. The caecum is the dark 
cavity below the opening into the small intestine; its prolongation is 
a worm-like body called the vermiform appendage. 

132. Alcohol irritates the kidneys, rendering them inflamed, 
which sometimes leads to Bright's and other diseases. 

133. The passage of a fluid through a membrane. 

134. Fast eating, insufficient mastication, exhaustion, mental dis- 
tress, anger, drinking too much while eating, especially cold drinks, 
eating too much, irregularity in eating, and want of exercise. 

135. Opium retards digestion. 

136. The blocd is the channel by- which materials for nourishment 
are earned to different parts of the body, and by which also the 
waste matter is removed. 

137. About one thirteenth. 

138. The watery part of the blood. It is composed of serum and 
fibrin. 

139. Serum gives the blood its liquid nature, and conveys in it the 
fibrin, which is the nutritious part. 

140. They are round, flattened bodies which make up nearly 
half of the blood, being 3^ of an inch in diameter. 

141. The heart has four cavities — two auricles and two ventricles. 

142. It is the centre of the circulatory system. 

143. The arteries have much stouter walls. 

144. The blood-wave. 

145. In color and composition venous blood is darker and contains 
much carbonic acid, with other impurities from the body. 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 2\*J 

146. The valves of the veins open toward the heart, and are needed 
to prevent a back-flow. 

147. The blood in the arteries is under greater pressure, and thus 
escapes more rapidly from a wounded artery than from a wounded 
vein. 

148. It rises from the left ventricle above the heart, turns suddenly 
and passes down the centre of the body, sending off branches on 
either side. 

149. By the lungs. 

150. The blood enters the auricles, whose walls contract and force 
it into the ventricles, the walls of which contract and force it out 
into the circulation. 

151. They are a fine network of blood-vessels which carry the 
blood to the surface of the body. Through their walls the material 
for building up the body passes, and through their walls are received 
the waste substances of the body. 

152. All the blood passes through the whole circulation every 
two minutes. 

153. They are affected by excitement, by violent exercise, stimu- 
lants, etc. 

154. The blood flows from the heart in the arteries, and toward the 
heart in the veins. 

155. Between the wound and the heart, if an artery be severed. 
On the opposite side of the wound, if a vein be severed. 

156. The process of converting food into bone, tissue, etc. 

157. By the blood. 

158 It quickens the heart's action. 

159. It changes the muscles of the heart to fat. 

160. Alcohol increases the heart's action, causing an increased flow 
of blood. 

161. Lightness, proper ventilation, and warmth. 

162. The blood is freed of its impurities and supplied with 
oxygen. 

163. The lungs. 

164. The lungs are situated in the cavity of the chest. They are 
elastic and tilled with a multitude of air cells. 

165. The covering of the lungs. 

166. The trachea is the tube by which air is conveyed to the 
lungs. The larynx is a box-shaped organ at the upper extremity of 
the trachea. 

167. The bronchial tubes are the two divisions of the trachea 
which convey air to either lung. 

168 To the air-cells. 
: 169 They are hair-like projections, which by their waving mo- 
tion expel dust from the air -passages. 



248 PHYSIOLOGY FOR SECOND GRADE. 

170. The ribs and diaphragm must rise and fall. 

171. It increases its action. 

172. To keep foreign substances out of the air-passages. 

173. The diaphragm is a membrane stretched across the body, 
separating the thoracic cavity from the abdominal. It assists in the 
process of breathing. 

174. That oxygen may come in contact with the blood. 

175. Oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, watery vapor, and a small 
portion of various other gases. 

176. It has less oxygen and more carbonic-acid gas than ordinary 
air. 

177. By breathing through a glass tube into a glass of lime-water 
carbonate of lime will be precipitated. 

178. Carbonic-acid gas destroys life by excluding oxygen. 

179. In breathing upon a cold, polished surface, the water- vapor 
from the lungs will condense. 

180. It is changed by giving up carbonic acid and receiving 
oxygen. 

181. They will finally be absorbed. 

182. Consumption ; pneumonia. 

183. Headache, lassitude, lung trouble, and general derangement 
of the body. 

184. About 98°. 

185. It does not. 

186. The functions which the vegetable and animal have in 
common, as circulation, digestion, respiration. 

187. To convey sensation. 

188. The white and the gray matter; the gray is the more abundant. 

189. In the brain the gray matter is upon the surface, and the white 
matter is deep-seated. In the spinal cord the opposite is the case. 

190. Minute divisions of the nerves ; nerves are thread like bodies 
which convey sensation. The neurilemma is the covering of the 
nerves. 

191. To transmit nervous force and impressions. 

192. The gray matter is chiefly composed of cells. A ganglion is 
a collection of gray cellular matter, and is the seat of reflex action. 

193. The cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata. 

194. They are divided into two parts. 

195. The outer membrane or dura mater is thick and very resist- 
ing; the arachnoid is a closed sac of serous membrane which secretes 
an albuminous lubricating fluid ; the pia mater is a fine network of 
blood vessels. 

196. The cerebrum occupies the upper portion of the brain. It is 
deeply convoluted and divided into two parts. 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR FIRST GRADE. 249 

197. Intelligence. 

198. They are a single organ as far as the intellect is concerned, 
but double with relation to the two sides of the body. 

199. The cerebrum is the seat of the higher faculties. 

200. The spinal cord is a bundle of nerve-fibres called afferent and 
efferent nerves. Gray matter is also present in the spinal cord. 

201. The afferent nerves convey sensation, and the efferent nerves 
convey motor impulses. 

202. Thirty-three pairs of nerves that branch from the spinal 
column. 

203. The posterior roots. 

204. The anterior roots. 

205. Sensation and motor influence may be communicated to 
them. 

206. The nerves extending from the brain to the various parts of 
the head. They number twelve pairs. 

207. An impulse along an afferent nerve to a nerve-centre, and an 
impulse from the nerve-centre along an efferent nerve without con- 
sciousness on the part of the brain ; as, when the hand touches a hot 
iron, the hand is drawn away before the sensation of pain is felt. 
The nerve-centre in this case is the spinal cord. Nerve-centres, or 
ganglia, are necessary for its performance. 

208. After their occurrence. 

209. Alcohol causes an increased amount of blood to flow to the 
brain. The brain substance becomes harder and shrunken, and a 
watery fluid fills the cavities. The blood-vessels are frequently 
weakened and burst, causing paralysis. 

210. Alcohol impairs the will. 



ANSWERS TO PHYSIOLOGY, FIRST GRADE. 

1. So that it may act as a spring when the body receives a jar. 

2. The shoulder- joint. Because of the shallowness of the cavity 
into which the joint fits. 

3. By ligaments. 

4. The cavity of the chest. 

5. Small openings, or ducts, in the bones. 

6. A point about which bone-substance gathers. 

7._ Because of the absence of pressure during the night upon the 
cartilaginous substance between the bones of the spinal column. 

8. For the attachment of ligaments and muscles. 

9. By a prolongation of the processes of the spinal column. 



250 PHYSIOLOGY FOR FIRST GRADE, 

10. So that when raised in the act of inspiration the cavity of the 
chest will be enlarged. 

11. About the twentieth year of life. 

12. Injuries in youth, such as falls, blowsj etc. Unnatural posi- 
tions, long-continued weakness of the muscles of the back, etc. 

13. A fibre is a thread-like substance, usually found in bundles. 
A tissue is one of the constituent parts of a body. 

14. They are bundles of muscle fibres. 

15. White fibrous tissue connected with muscle-substance. 

16. They are ring-like muscles encircling apertures. 

17. The rebuilding of destroyed muscular substance, and a gene- 
ral repair of the waste caused by labor. 

18. A general breaking-down of tissue. 

19. It is the tendon passing over the heel, and receives its name 
from being the vulnerable spot in the warrior Achilles. 

20. Raising weights with the arms brings into use the biceps mus- 
cles. Pushing against a w T all or upright bars exercises the triceps 
muscles. Bending forward till the hands touch the feet exercises the 
muscles of the back. Rising upon tiptoe and raising the body from 
a sitting position calls into action the muscles of the legs. Lying 
upon the back and raising the body to a sitting position, without the 
use of the hands, exercises the abdominal muscles. Raising dumb- 
bells pependicularly above the head from the shoulder develops the 
muscles of the chest. 

21. The will, mechanical agents, chemical agents, and electricity. 

22. The papillae are elevations upon the tongue possessing nerves 
which carry to the brain the sensation of taste. 

23. One in whom the dark pigment-cells are wanting. 

24. The skin is one of the sources by which the waste matter is 
thrown off from the body. Unless it is kept clean, that its pores may 
be open, it will not perform this office, and greater labor is then 
thrown upon the lungs and kidneys, to the detriment of these organs. 

25. Seventy per cent. 

26. Animal parasites in meat. To guard against them meat 
should be thoroughly cooked. 

27. A wasting of the substance of the body, notably the lungs. 

28. Corn has more fat, but less nitrogenous matter, than wheat or 
rye. 

29. Brandy, rum, whisky, and gin contain about fifty per cent of 
alcohol ; wine, from five to twenty-five per cent. 

30. Beer, ale, and porter contain from three to eight per cent of 
alcohol. 

31 It is not. 

32. The active principle of tea is tannin ; of coffee, caffein. 

33. The 'parotid, in front of the ear. The submaxillary and the 



PHYSIOLOGY FOR FIRST GRADE. 25 I 

sublingual, between the lower jaw and the floor of the mouth, the 
submaxillary being- farther back than the sublingual. 

34. By the contraction of the muscular walls of the oesophagus. 

35. Because the mouth, by being open, becomes drier than 
usual. 

36. By means of an opening made bj r a gun-shot wound in the 
wall of the stomach of Alexis St. Martin, a Canadian voyageur. 

37. The lining membrane of the abdomen is the peritoneum. 

38. In the mouth it meets the saliva, where some of the starch is 
changed to sugar. It thence passes through the oesophagus to the 
stomach, in which it meets the gasiric juice, which changes the fats. 
It passes out into the small intestine, and there meets the bile and 
pancreatic juice, which changes the starch to sugar. 

39. It is partly absorbed by small blood-vessels opening into the 
stomach. 

40. The demand of the system for a fluid to convey nutrition 
and carry away waste matter. 

41. The intestines. 

42. The covering of the heart. 

43. By Harvey in 1616. 

44. Upon the right side of the neck. 

45. It is transmitted by the left ventricle. 

46. By its contraction. 

47. To carry oxygen to the different parts of the body and bring 
back to the lungs carbonic-acid gas. 

48. Coagulation is due to the fibrin. By coagulation excessive 
bleeding from a slight wound is avoided. 

49. Bleeding from ruptured blood-vessels. 

50. Thelacteals. 

51. By the vibration of the vocal chords. Its modifications depend 
upon the contraction of these chords. 

52. Because, if fastened, they could not be fully inflated. 

53. A considerable length of time elapses before all the air in the 
lungs is changed. 

54. The lungs would be overworked and so injured. 

55. By the thin walls of the blood-vessels and the air-cells. 

56. In the pulmonary capillaries the blood gives up carbonic- 
acid gas and receives oxygen. In the nutritive capillaries it ex- 
changes food for worn-out material. 

57. By the epiglottis. 

58. It is maintained by the chemical action which takes place in 
the digestion of food, and the action of oxygen in uniting with the 
carbon of the tissues. 

59. It serves simply to dilute the oxygen. 



252 PHYSIOLOGY FOR FIRST GRADE. 

60. Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body. Physi- 
ology is a study of the bodily functions. Hygiene is the study of 
the best ways of using the bodily powers and ministering to their 
wants. 

61. (Esophagus, trachea, patella; colon, caecum, and rectum com- 
prise the large intestine; duodenum, jejunum, and ileum comprise 
the small intestine; scapula, clavicle, sternum. 

62. In the brain. 

63. Organic bodies have the power of growth and reproduction. 
Inorganic bodies do not. 

64. Because the odor of the medicine does not strike upon the 
olfactory nerves. We receive many impressions through the sense 
of smell which we ascribe to taste. 

6o. Impure blood is conveyed by an artery from the heart to the 
lungs. 

66. Man stands erect, and has hands suited for design. 

67. A deranged condition of the nervous system, and a weakened 
condition of the heart, which may end in disease of that organ. 

68. It injures the senses of smell and taste, and the quality of 
the voice. 

69. Cigarettes are more largelj r adulterated than tobacco in other 
forms, and the one who uses them takes a large amount of smoke 
into his lungs. 

70. Digestion, circulation, and respiration; because these are 
common to vegetables as well as to animals. 



ALCOHOL AND ITS EFFECTS UPON THE BODY. 253 



CHAPTER VII. 

ALCOHOL AND ITS EFFECTS UPON THE 
BODY. 

jFor Secontr @?ratre, 

1. What is alcohol ? 

2. Name the common alcoholic drinks, and state the 
percentage of alcohol in each. 

3. What is meant by a "fortified" or "brandied" 
wine ? 

4. Name other substances found in alcoholic drinks. 

5. Is alcohol a food ? 

6. What effect has alcohol upon the stomach ? 

7. How does alcohol find its way over the system ? 

<S. What percentage of the blood is water? and what 
c : rbct has alcohol upon this ? 

9. Of what use are the red blood corpuscles? and what 
i .j the action of alcohol upon these ? 

10. How is the circulation affected by the shrunken 
and irregular shape of the red corpuscles ? 

11. What proof is there that the presence of alcohol in 
the blood prevents its complete purification ? 

12. What proportion of the blood is fibrine? and how 
is this affected by alcohol ? 

13. What organs of the body have the greatest attrac- 
tion for alcohol ? Which of these has the greatest ? 



254 ALCOHOL AND LTS EFFECTS UPON THE BODY. 

14. State, in general, the effect of alcohol upon the 
liver. 

15. What proportion of alcohol in the blood has been 
found to check the absorption of oxygen ? 

16. State the temperature of the body. Tell how this 
is principally caused, and how alcohol affects the temper- 
ature. 

17. How long is required for the body to regain its 
normal temperature after the temperature has fallen from 
the use of alcohol ? 

18. Why do men, after taking alcohol, feel the cold so 
much more intensely when exposed to it? 

19. During what season are the worst influences of al- 
cohol on man observable? 

20. What is a true fuel food? and why is alcohol not 
one? 

21. What vital organ is first to fail in power after in- 
dulgence in strong drink? 

22. What is the effect of alcohol upon the heart? 

23. It has been estimated that the heart makes 100,000 
beats in twenty-four hours. How would these be in- 
creased in that time by the taking of four fluid ounces of 
alcohol? 

24. As alcohol is not digested by the stomach, but 
passes unchanged into the blood, how is it carried out of 
the system? 

25. How are the kidneys affected by alcohol? 

26. What fatal disease often results from long-con- 
tinued use of alcoholic drinks? 

27. What fatal diseases of the brain and nervous sys- 
tem are induced by alcohol? 

28. Is alcohol a narcotic? 



FOR SECOND GRADE. 255 



ANSWERS TO ALCOHOL AND ITS EFFECTS UPON 
THE BODY, SECOND GRADE. 

1. Alcohol, or spirit of wine, so called because first distilled 
from wine, is a colorless liquid, lighter than water, and boils at 
172° Fahr. It is combustible, burning with an almost colorless 
flame, and yielding considerable heat. It has a pungent odor, and, 
when in contact with the lips, tongue, or throat, produces a sharp, 
burning taste. Its chemical composition (ethylic alcohol) is rep- 
resented by the formula C 2 H 6 0. It forms the active part of in- 
toxicating drinks, and its nature is not changed by anything with 
which it is mixed. 

2. By volume, brandy, from 50 to 54 per cent ; rum, 48 per 
cent ; whiskey, 45 to 46 per cent ; gin, 38 to 39 per cent ; sherry 
wine, 22 to 23 per cent ; Madeira, 20 to 24 per cent ; port, at least 
20 per cent ; champagne, 10 to 11 per cent ; ales and porters, often 
as high as 10 per cent ; beer varies from 4 or 5 to 12 per cent; cider 
has nearly the same amount of alcohol as beer. 

3. When wines, after the actual process of fermenting, are found 
to contain too small a percentage of alcohol, some strong spirit, as 
brandy, is added to increase the percentage of alcohol. The per- 
centage is thus increased from 3 to 5 per cent. 

4. All contain water, and more or less sugar, and a small amount 
of free acid. In wines, there is from 3 to 5 per cent of sugar. 
Beers and ales contain, in addition to sugar, certain extractive sub- 
stances. 

5. Foods have been defined as substances, which, when taken 
into the alimentary canal, are absorbed from it and serve either 
to supply material for the growth of the body or for the re- 
placement of matter which has been removed from it. A food, 
therefore, must contain the elements which it is to replace in the 
body. In addition, it must be capable of being absorbed by the 
stomach and intestines, and carried to all the tissues of the body 
to build them up or replace them, and it must not injure the struc- 
ture or function of any organ. Alcohol does not supply water, it 
does not supply the salts from which bone is made, it does not sup- 
ply albumen, caseine, fibrine, or any of those substances which 
build up the muscles, nerves, and other active organs ; and it is 
directly injurious to these, as will be seen by the answers to other 
questions. 

6. The effect of alcohol upon the stomach is less injurious than 
upon any other organ. When first taken, it produces a sense of 
warmth in the stomach, due to the relaxation and enlargement of 
the blood-vessels and the forcing of more blood into them. This 
state of irritation often increases the appetite and causes more 



256 ALCOHOL AND LTS EFFECTS UPON THE BODY. 

food to be taken ; but its digestion is impaired, because of the ac- 
tion of the alcohol upon the gastric juice. When the use of al- 
cohol is continued, the vessels become permanently dilated, the 
coat becomes thickened, and not only is the secretion of the gas- 
tric juice largely diminished, but it becomes coagulated or thick- 
ened and its power of digestion greatty lessened. 

7. By whatever way alcohol is introduced into the body, it is 
very soon absorbed into the blood, and carried by the blood all 
over the body. 

8. There is 79 per cent of w T ater in the blood ; and alcohol, be- 
cause of its affinity for water, lessens this amount, and thus impairs 
the power of the blood to build up tissue. 

9. A great part of the carbonic acid gas given out with the 
breath is condensed in the red corpuscles, and brought to the 
lungs in the circulation of the blood. Coming into peculiar con- 
tact with the air in the lungs, these corpuscles give up their car- 
bonic acid gas. and become charged with oxygen. The blood is 
thus oxygenated or purified— changed from a dark red to a bright 
red color. The red corpuscles, when alcohol is present in the 
blood, lose part of their power to absorb oxygen, and they under- 
go, besides, a process of shrinking, due to the extraction of water 
from them. 

10. Owing to their smaller and irregular form from loss of 
water, the corpuscles adhere together in masses, and become di- 
rectly obstructive to the course of blood in the minute vessels of 
the bod}', producing, too, congestion of the blood in these parts, 
and at length leading to disease of the parts. 

11. It is proved by the smaller amount of carbonic acid gas 
given off in the breath, and by the often-noticed blueness of the 
skin caused b} r the darker or unpurified blood in the vessels. 

12. The proportion of fibrine is about two and a half parts in a 
thousand. An excess of alcohol in the blood coagulates the fibrine ; 
and this, in its solid'tied state, retards the circulation of the blood, 
especial!}' in the minute blood-vessels. Frequently, these tiny 
clots of fibrine obstruct the current of blood in the brain, and thus 
produce the beginnings of paralysis. In other instances, these ob- 
structions occur in the liver or the kidneys, making these organs 
the seat of fatal diseases. 

13. The liver and the brain. The brain, doubtless because it 
contains more water in its structure than any other organ. 

14. At first, alcohol irritates the liver in much the same way it 
does the mouth and tongue ; then distention of the blood-vessels 
takes place, and there is a larger accumulation of blood in them 
than there should be. This change in condition causes a change 
in its action, and impairs its power of making the food carried to 
it ready for the uses of the body, its power of secreting bile, and 
its power of changing waste matter so that it can be carried out of 
the system by other organs. Its more serious effect, resulting 
form beer and wine drinking, is fatty degeneration of the liver. 



FOR SECOND GRADE. 257 

15. One part of alcohol in five hundred has been proved by ex- 
periment to check the perfect reception of oxvgeu by the blood. 

16. The temperature of the body is a little over 98 Fahr. This 
temperature is caused principally by the union of oxygen with 
carbon and hydrogen in the lungs. When just sufficient alcohol 
is taken to produce a decided effect upon the body, the tempera- 
ture of the body is apparently raised. In those not accustomed to 
alcohol, the temperature is raised half a degree, while, in those 
who are accustomed to it, the temperature may be raised from a 
degree to a degree and a half. This is due to the fact that the al- 
cohol, conveyed to all parts of the body, has reduced the nervous 
power of the small vessels spread through the whole surface of the 
skin, and rendered them, because of their weakened state, unable to 
resist the force of blood from the beat of the heart. There is now 
an excess of warm blood in the skin, and a sense of increased 
warmth is felt ; but the surface is giving off more heat than is 
natural, and at the expense of the body, which is making heat by 
the ordinary chemical changes. As the alcohol itself does not pro- 
duce any heat, the result is that the temperature of the body falls 
from one to two degrees, according to the temperature of the sur- 
rounding air. This is accompanied by depression and chilliness, 
and there is great liability to take cold. 

17. Under the most favorable conditions, two hours ; under con- 
ditions less favorable, three hours are required. 

18. The alcohol causes the blood to flow to the surface of the 
body, where its heat is rapidly set free. As alcohol furnishes noth- 
ing to keep up the supply of heat, the vital energy is lessened and 
the cold becomes painful. 

19. During the winter, and particularly when the weather is in- 
tensely cold. For as alcohol checks the production of animal heat, 
the cold is given more chance to attack the body. 

20. A true fuel food is one capable of producing and sustaining 
animal warmth. As alcohol produces a contrary effect, lowering 
the temperature of the body and impairing its power to resist cold, 
it is not a true fuel food. 

21. The heart. 

22. The frequency of the heart's action is increased, but not its 
force, and there is, consequently, an abatement of its force much 
earlier in life. It is also rendered more liable to become obstructed 
by fat, and to undergo change of structure. 

23. Four fluid ounces of alcohol taken in twenty-four hours in- 
creases the beats to 112,226, or nearly 8£ beats a minute beyond 
the natural number. 

24. Partly bj the lungs and skin, but principally by the kidneys. 

25. It is the office of the kidneys to carry out of the system, to a 
large extent, materials in the blood that are not changed in their 
nature or appropriated by the system to build it up. As alcohol 
passes from the stomach into the blood, its first action upon the 
kidneys is to produce irritation, as it does upon the stomach and 



258 ALCOHOL AND ITS EFFECTS UPON THE BODY. 

liver. The blood-vessels, which serve so important a part in the 
delicate work done by the kidneys, are distended, and become more 
or less congested, according to the amount of alcohol passing 
through them. Their secretions are unnaturally increased, and 
their structure begins to break down, followed directly by disease 
in some part of the system. 

26. Bright's disease. Though not solely caused by alcoholic 
beverages, yet the long use of them causes the greatest number of 
cases of this disease. 

27. Apoplexy, epilepsy, paralysis, vertigo, softening of the brain, 
and dementia or general failure of the mental powers. 

28. Alcohol is called a powerful narcotic, because it has all the 
properties characteristic of that class. 



BOOKKEEPING FOR SECOND GRADE. 2$g 



CHAPTER VIII. 

BOOKKEEPING. 

jFor Seconir ©frafce* 

1. What is a business transaction? 

2. Define debtor ; creditor. 

3. Define debits; credits. 

4. What is an account? 

5. Define bookkeeping. 

6. How many methods are there in bookkeeping, and 
how are these distinguished? 

7. What are the three main books of single entry? 

8. Define each. 

9. Name three auxiliary books that may be used in the 
same system. 

10. Define each. 

11. Write a receipt. 

12. Make out a bill of items, and receipt it. 

13. What are resources? 

14. By what other name are they sometimes designated? 

15. What are liabilities? 

16. What is an inventory? 

17. What is meant by insolvency? 

18. Define posting. 

19. What is meant in posting by " short extended" 
and " full extended"? 

20. Explain these signs: @, V c , Mdse., Dr., Int., Dis., 
Cr. 



260 BOOKKEEPING FOR SECOND GRADE. 

21. What is meant by condensed accounts? 

22. Into what two main classes are accounts divided? 

23. What is a trial- balance? 

24. What is meant by the term merchandise? 

25. What does the difference between the debtor and 
creditor sides of the cash-book indicate? 

26. What does the difference between the debtor and 
creditor sides of a personal account show? 

27. What is a due-bill? 

28. On which side of the cash account does the balance 
occur, and why. 

29. What do we mean by "closing the ledger"? 

30. How may the correctness of the posting be deter- 
mined ? 

31. With what is Bills Payable debited? 

32. What is a balance-sheet ? 

33. Rule paper for a day-book, a cash-book, a ledger, 
condensed accounts. Enter the following items appropri- 
ately, and balance cash-book and ledger: 

June 1, 1885— Amt. on hand this day $104.50. 
" 2. Paid Stephen Wood for coal $5.59. 
" 3. Sold John Tooker on V, 10 lb. sugar @ 8c, 

2 lb. coffee @ 24c, 1 lb. starch 9c 
" 4. Sold Wm. S. Greene on V„ 1 lb. tea 75c, 25 

lb. flour @ 3c 
" 5. Paid gas-bill $3.80. Paid water-bill $2.70. 
" 6. Sold Stephen Wood on «7 C 4 gal. molasses @ 

60c, 1 lb. rice 10c 
" 7. Rec'd cash for sales this week $97.60. 
" 10. Sold Wm. S. Greene on V c , 1 can corn 20c, 

2 cans pears @ 18c 
" 17. Sold John Tooker on V 1 lb. flour $6.75, 1 

bag feed $1.09 
" 21. RecM for sales this week $60.27. 
" 26. John Tooker has paid $5 on V c . 



BOOKKEEPING FOR FIRST GRADE. 261 

June 27. Paid tax $16.20. Paid clerk $10. Paid 
carting $2.50. 
" 27. RecM for sales this week $59.67. 
" 30. Sold Wm. S. Greene on V c old box-wagon for 

$12. 
" " John Tooker has paid on V c $4.12. 
" " Paid rent for month of June $5.50. 
" " Paid insurance $5.40. 

" " Stephen Wood has brought me one cord of 
oak wood, for which he charges $4. 80. 



jFot iFtrst esraire* 

1. What are the three main books of double entry? 

2. Explain the relation which the second of these bears 
to the first and third. 

3. Name three auxiliary books. 

4. What is a bills-payable account? What, a bills-re- 
ceivable account? 

5. In what books are they entered, and what particu- 
lars are stated about them? 

6. What is journalizing? 

7. How would you balance an account in the ledger? 

8. What are accommodation accounts? 

9. What is meant by closing an account? 

10. Suppose a transaction has been incorrectly journal- 
ized and posted in the ledger, how would you correct the 
error? 

11. What are accounts current? 

12. New York, July 1, 1885. Bo't of C. E. Harriots 
1500 bbl. flour @ $5.85, and on July 2 sold John Claxton 
320 bbl. @ $6.00. Make proper entries of the above items 
in day-book, journal, and ledger. 



262 BOOKKEEPING FOR FIRST GRADE. 

13. When money is received for interest, what is made 
debtor and what creditor? 

14. Bo't of Baker & Pratt on our acceptance at 60 
days, favor of H. E. Plympton, 400 triumph desks @ 
$4.75 = 11900. 

What does the above transaction mean? Prepare it to 
enter in the ledger. 

15. Write a draft, and accept it. 

16. Write a note, and indorse it. 

17. Under what class of accounts would you regard 
real estate, and why? 

18. In closing your accounts, why does Merchandise 
appear in Balance account and also in Loss and Gain? 

19. Journalize the following transaction: Bo't of 
Wayland Smith an invoice of mdse. amounting to $480. 
Paid one half in cash and gave my note for the balance. 

20. When will Mdse. account indicate a loss? 

21. In the closing of the ledger, into what account do 
vou close loss and gain? 



BOOKKEEPING FOR SECOND GRADE. 263 



ANSWERS TO BOOKKEEPING, SECOND GRADE. 

1. An exchange of values is a business transaction. 

2. One who receives value on a promise to pay is a debtor. A 
person to whom a debt is owed is a creditor. 

3. Debits are entries against debtors. Credits are entries in favor 
of creditors. 

4. A record of a business transaction, under its proper title, is an 
account. 

5. Bookkeeping is the process of recording business transactions. 

6. There are two ways by which books are kept, — by single and by 
double entry. In single entry the record of the transaction is en- 
tered in but one place ; in double entry, in two or more places. 

7. Day book, ledger, and cash-book. 

8. In the day-book each transaction is recorded as it occurs. In 
the ledger each man's debits and credits are brought together and 
placed on the proper side of his account. In the cash-book is placed, 
in the proper column, the record of all moneys received or paid out. 

9. Bill-book, sales-book, invoice-book. 

10. A book in which a record of notes is kept, — bills payable and 
receivable, — with the proper dates, is a bill-book. A book in which a 
record of merchandise sold is kept is called a sales-book. A book 
in which is kept an account of all merchandise on hand at the com- 
mencement of business, together with that bought, is an invoice- 
book. 

11. 

$165^&. Milwaukee, Wis., Jan. 4, 1885. 

Rec'd of J. R. Trask one hundred sixty-five dollars, on account. 

S. L. Pierce. 

12. 

Rochester, N. Y., Jan. 4, 1885. 
Mr. A. R. Goodenow, Dr., 

To Howard & Co. 



Dec. 



To 22£ lbs. nails, @ 4c., 
" 1 lamp, 
" 3 doz. screws, @ 8c, 



Rec'd pay't, 

Howard & Co. 



90 
60 
24 



74 



264 BOOKKEEPING FOR SECOND GRADE. 

13. Money or property possessed, notes due, balances of account 
due, are resources. 

14. Assets. 

15. Money which one owes. 

16. An account of stock on hand. 

17. Inability to pay one's debts. 

18. Transferring accounts from the day-book or journal to the 
ledger is posting. 

19. When there are two or more items of the same day, dropping 
the amount of each before the double line and entering the sum 
of the amounts in the money columns is short extended; carrying 
the amounts directly to the money columns is full extended. 

20. At, Account, Merchandise, Debtor, Interest, Discount, Credi- 
tor. 

21. Entering debits and credits on same page and carrying the 
amounts to the proper money columns. 

22. Into real and fictitious. 

23. A statement of the total debits and credits of the several ac- 
counts is a trial-balance. 

24. It is a general name given to goods, wares, commodities, or 
whatever is bought or sold in trade or in the market. 

25. The amount of cash on hand. 

26. An individual's indebtedness to the firm, or the firm's in- 
debtedness to the individual. 

27. A simple acknowledgment of a debt in writing is a due bill. 

28. On the credit side, because the firm cannot pay out more 
money than it receives. 

29. Balancing all the accounts. 

30. The total debits of the day-book will equal the total debits of 
the ledger, and the total credits of the day- book the total credits of 
the ledger. Their differences will also be equal. This proof is 
not, however, a conclusive one, as two errors may balance each 
other, or the same transaction may be posted twice. 

31. With the firm's own notes and acceptances as it redeems 
them. 

32. A statement of the resources, liabilities, gains, losses, and pres- 
ent worth is a balance-sheet. 



BOOKKEEPING FOR SECOND GRADE. 265 



COLORA. MD., JUNE 1, 1885. 



John Tooker, 

To 10 lbs. sugar, @ 8c, 



Dr. 



2 lbs. coffee, @ 24c, 
1 lb. starch, 


48 
.09 


Wm. S Greene, 

To 1 lb. tea, 

25 lbs. flour, @ 3c, 


Dr. 

.75 
.75 


Stephbn Wood, 

To 4 gallons niol , @ 60c, 
1 lb. rice. 


Dr. 

$2.40 
.10 


Wm. Greene, 

To 1 can corn, 

2 cans pears. @ 18c, 


Dr. 

.2.1 
.36 


John Tooker, 

To 1 bbl. flour, 
1 bag feed, 


Dr. 

$6.75 
1.09 


John Tooker, 

By cash on •/«. 


Cr. 


Wm. Greene, 

To box wagon, 


Dr. 


John Tooker, 

By cash on ■/„, 


Cr. 



Stephen Wood, 

By 1 cord of wood, 



Or. 



$1 



CASH. 



Dr. 



Cr 



1885. 














June 


1 


To amount on hand. 


$104 


50 








2 


Paid Stephen Wood, coal, 






$5 


59 




5 


Paid gas- bill. 
Paid water-bill, 






3 
2 


80 
70 




7 


Rec'd for sales this week, 


97 


60 ; 








21 


Rec'd for sales this week, 


60 


27 








26 


Rec'd of John Tooker on «/c» 


5 


00 








27 


Paid tax, 

Paid clerk, 

Paid carting, 

Rec'd for sales this week. 


59 


67 


16 
10 
2 


20 

00 
50 




30 


Rec'd of John Tooker on a / , 
Paid rent for month, 
Paid insurance, 


4 


12 


5 
5 


50 
40 






By balance, 




16 


279 


47 




$331 


$331 


16 



266 BOOKKEEPING FOR FIRST GRADE. 

Dr. JOHN TOOKER. 



Or. 



1885. 

June 3 

17 

July 1 


To mdse., 
To balance. 


1 
1 


SI 
7 

$9 


37 

84 

21 
09 


June 26 
30 


By cash, 
" balance, 


1 
1 


$5 
4 

$9 


00 
12 
09 

21 



WM. S. GREENE. 



1885. 

June 4 

10 



July 1 



To mdse., 



To balance, 



1 


$1 


50 


June 30 


1 




60 | 




12 


00 






$14 


10 






$14 


10 





By balance, 







STEPHEN WOOD. 










1885. 

June 6 

30 


To mdse., 
" balance, 


1 


$2 50 
2 1 30 


1885. 
June 30 


By 1 cord wood 


1 


$4 


80 








1L 


80 




By balance, 




$4 
~$2~ 


80 
30 



ANSWERS TO BOOKKEEPING, FIRST GRADE. 

1. Day book, journal, ledger. 

2. Proper debits and credits are deduced from the original entries 
in the day-book and recorded in the journal, from which they are 
collected and posted to the several individual accounts in the ledger. 

3. Cash-book, invoice and bill books. 

4. An account of notes and bills issued to other parties by the 
firm is a bills-payable account. An account of notes and bills due 
the firm is a bills-receivable account. 

5. In the bill-book. In this is kept a record of the date of issu- 
ance, date of maturity, when paid or otherwise disposed of. 

6. Determining the proper debits and credits from every transac- 
tion recorded in the day-book and entering these as such in the 
journal. 

7. Add each side. If these are not equal, place on the smaller 
side, in red ink, the amount necessary to make them equal, either as 
"To balance" or "By balance." On the opposite side, below the 
double balance-line, enter it in black ink as " By balance" or " To 
balance." 



BOOKKEEPING FOR FIRST GRADE. 



267 



8. Accounts not essential but convenient, such as real-estate ac- 
counts, sundry -items account, bills-receivable accounts, etc. 

9. Closing an account supposes a settlement which makes the 
debit and credit sides equal. Double lines are drawn under the 
equal totals. 

10. Enter an equal amount on the opposite side, as " By error" 
or " To error" as the case may be. 

11. Bills of account, containing all the debits and credits, are 
accounts current. 

12. 

DAY-BOOK. 
New York, July 1,1885. 



Journal page. 



Bo't of C. E. Harriots, on a /c 
1500 bbls. flour, @ $5.85, 



Sold John Claxton, on a /o. 
320 bbls. flour, @ $6.00, 



$8775 



$1980 



00 



00 



JOURNAL. 
New York, July 1, 1885. 



Dr. 



Cr. 



Ledger page. 



Merchandise 

To C. E. Harriots, 



John Claxton, 
To Mdse., 



$8775 
$1980 



00 



00 



$8775 
$1980 



00 



00 



Dr. 



LEDGER. 

Merchandise. 



Cr. 



1885. 
July 



To C. E. Hariots 



1 

3 


$8775 


00 


1885. 
July 


2 



By Jno. Claxton 



$1980 



00 



Dr 








C. E. Harriots. 






Cr. 














1885. 
July 


1 


By Mdse., 




$8775 


00 



268 BOOKKEEPING FOR FIRST GRAJ)E. 

Dr. John Claxton. Cr. 



July 



To Mdse., 





$1980 


00 







13. Cash is made debtor and interest creditor. 

14. Baker, Pratt & Co. have taken our draft on H. E. Plympton, 
at 60 days. In the ledger the entry would be, " Merchandise Dr. 
To Bills Payable, $1900.00." The other entry would be, "Bills 
Payable Cr. By Mdse, $1900.00." 

15. 
$20. Bangor, Me., July 1, 1885. 

At sight pay to Charles Gordon, or bearer, twenty dollars, value 
received, and charge to our account. T. S. Grace & Co. 

To O. R. Thomes, 

Somerville, Me. 

To accept the above draft the drawee writes the word " Accepted " 
with his name and the date across the face. 

16. 
$92 r 5 oV Detroit, Mich., Sept. 2, 1885. 

On demand I promise to pay B. C. Thwyng, or order, ninety-two 
dollars and fifty cents, value received. A. T. Cotton. 

The above note would be indorsed by the payee writing his name 
on the back. 

17. Accommodation accounts, because they are convenient but 
not essential accounts. 

18. It appears in Loss and Gain because money has been *vud for 
it and Mdse. has not realized it. It appears in Balance account be- 
cause it is one of the resources, and the Balance account shows total 
resources and liabilities. 



19. 



Dr. 



Cr. 



Ledger page. 



Merchandise 

To Bills Payable, 

Merchandise 
To Cash, 



$240 
240 



$240 
240 



20. When we have bought more merchandise than we have sold. 

21. Close Loss and Gain account into the proprietor's account, 
16 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR SECOND GRADE. 269 



CHAPTER IX. 

CIVIL GOVERNMENT, 

jfor .Secontr gKratre. 

1. What is a State? 

2. What is government? What is civil government? 

3. Distinguish between the government and the State. 

4. Name and define three forms of government. Give 
an example of each. 

5. What three departments has government? 

6. What is law? 

7. Distinguish between statute law and unwritten or 
common law. 

8. What is a constitution? 

9. State the three obligations of government. 

10. How may each of these obligations be secured? 

11. What are the four natural rights? Why are they 
so caiieu? 

12. What is the writ of habeas corpus, and what natural 
right is it intended to secure? 

13. What is the meaning of the words habeas corpus ? 

14. Upon what principle is the right of taxation based? 

15. Why is it necessary to tax? 

16. What is the right of eminent domain? 

17. What is civil liberty? 

18. Name the conditions under which one should forfeit 
his natural rights. 

19. How may a government promote the general wel- 
fare? 



270 CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR SECOND GRADE. 

20. What is the duty of government in the matter of 
education? 

21. What are the reasons for the necessity of education 
in republics? 

22. What is the duty of the government in regard to 
the defence of the State ? 

23. What obligation is a government under towards 
other States? 

24. What is international law? 

25. Wherein does it differ from other law? 

26. Into what two classes are the inhabitants of a State 
divided? Define each class. 

27. What duties have citizens toward the government? 

28. What is the right of suffrage? 

29. Is it a natural or a civil right? 

30. Why is it every voter's duty to vote? 

31. When is revolution toward a government justifi- 
able? 

32. What are political rights? What civil rights? 

33. To which of these classes does the right of religious 
belief or worship belong? 

ORIGIN OF THE CONSTITUTION- 
S' Between the adoption of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence and the Articles of Confederation (1776-1781), 
how was the government of the colonies exercised? 

35. What were the Articles of Confederation? 

36. Name four defects of the Articles of Confederation 
which led to the adoption of the constitution? 

37. What is the object of the constitution? 

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES AND THE SENATE. 

38. What is the number of members of the House of 
Representatives ? 

39. How are they chosen? For how long elected? 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR SECOND GRADE. 2J\ 

40. What qualifications are requisite? 

41. What salary do the members receive? 

42. State what representation the Territories have in 
Congress. 

43. In case of vacancy, how is the representation of a 
State filled? 

44. State the plan of apportionment. 

45. How is the House of Representatives organized? 

46. What two special powers has the House of Repre- 
sentatives? 

47. What determines the number of senators? 

48. What qualifications are requisite for a senator? 

49. What salary do senators receive? 

50. How are senators chosen, and for how long? 

51. How is a vacancy in the office of senator filled? 

52. How is the Senate organized? 

53. What special powers has the Senate? 

54. State how a bill originating in either house may, 
under veto, become a law. 

55. In either house, how many constitute a quorum? 

56. Explain how a bill may become a law. 

57. Give the number of the present Congress, and state 
how it is determined. 

58. When does Congress convene? 

59. How is Congress adjourned? 

60. What prohibitions are put upon members of Con- 
gress? 

61. What compensation, other than salary, do members 
of Congress receive? 

62. How is the Senate made a perpetual body? 

63. What is meant when it is said that the House of 
Representatives embodies the national idea, and the Sen- 
ate represents the federal idea? 



2/2 CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR SECOND GRADE. 



THE PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT. 

#4. What qualifications must the President of the U. S. 
have? 

65. State the manner in which he is chosen. 

66. State the number of electors, and how this number 
is determined. 

67. In case no person has a majority of the electoral 
yote^ how is the choice made? 

68. In case the office of President becomes vacant, name 
the otiier officers that may become President. 

69. Give the President's term of office and salary. 

70. What is furnished him besides salary? 

71. What limitation is put upon increasing his salary? 

72. What are the general duties of the President? 

73. Name the executive departments of the govern- 
ment. 

74. flow are the heads of the departments chosen? 

75. What are the duties of the A'ice-President? 

76. What salary does he receive ? 

77 How is he elected? 

78 When the Vice-President becomes President, how 
is thit office of Vice-President filled? 

JUDICIARY. 

79. What is the highest court of the U. S. ? 

80. Who presides over this court, and how are these; 
officer chosen? 

81. What salary do they receive? 

82. How long is the term of office? 

83. On what day does the court annually convene? 
84 Who is the present chief -justice? 

85 : What two courts just below the highest ? 

86 Who presides over these courts? 

87 Name the courts below the circuit courts. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT EOR SECOND GRADE. 273 

88. What officers have these courts? 

89. What is the Court of Claims? 



POWERS OF CONGRESS. 

90. What power of taxation has Congress? 

91. What is a tax? What are duties? Imposts? Ex* 
cises? 

92. Distinguish between direct and indirect taxes. 

93. Define specific and ad valorem duties. 

94. What power has Congress to borrow money? 

95. What power over the revenue? 

96. What control has Congress over the regulation 
of commerce, including the coining of money, weights 
and measures, and bankrupt laws? 

97. State all the steps in the provision for naturaliza- 
tion established by Congress. 

98. Under what power of Congress was the postal 
money-order system established? 

98. What is a patent? What a copyright? For how 
long are these granted? 

100. Define piracy and treason. 

101. What power has Congress in such cases? 

102. What power has Congress respecting war? 

103. What power respecting the territory and all the 
property of the U. S. ? 

104. What are the modes of procedure for the admis- 
sion of a State into the Union? 

105. WTiat does the Constitution say respecting ex-post- 
fact laws? 

106. How may the Constitution be amended? 

107. Give an outline of the "bill of rights" embodied 
in the first ten amendments to the Constitution. 

108. Give an outline of the eleventh and twelfth 
amendments. 



274 CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR FIRST GRADE. 

109. Give an outline of the thirteenth, fourteenth, 
and fifteenth amendments. 

110. Give an account of the mode of impeachment, the 
officers impeachable, and how the trial is conducted. 



jfor iFtrst ©fralre. 

1. Who are excluded from being electors? 

2. What was the original mode of electing the Presi> 
dent and Vice-President? 

3. What is meant in the Constitution by " but no at- 
tainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or for- 
feiture, except during the life of the person attainted"? 

4. What is the introductory part of the Constitution 
called? 

5 What reason can be given for the short term of office 
fixed for representatives? 

6. What advantage is derived from dividing the legis- 
lative body into two branches? 

7. Wherein does the Senate differ from the House of 
Representatives? 

8. To what parts of the English Parliament do the 
Senate and House of Representatives correspond? 

9. What reason can be assigned for each State, whether 
large or small, having two Senators? 

10. Prom what does the Declaration of Independence 
say that governments derive their just powers? 

11. Who presides in the Senate on trial of the Presi- 
dent of the U. S. ? 

12. When is the presiding officer of the Senate entitled 
to vote? 

13. How are the rules of proceeding in Congress de- 
termined? 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR FIRST GRADE. 2?$ 

14. How is the publicity of the doings of Congress se- 
cured? 

15. How are fugitive criminals escaping into another 
State returned? 

16. What is meant by the Civil Service of the U. S. ? 

17. What reason can be given for the long term of 
office fixed for senators? 

18. In what way does the vote of the senators differ 
from the vote of the Continental Congress? 

19. Into what classes are senators divided? 

20. At what time does the Senate choose a president 
pro tempore? 

21. In trials of impeachment, what reasons can you 
give why the verdict should not be unanimous as in trial 
by jury, and why, moreover, a bare majority should not 
be sufficient for conviction? 

22. When there is not a quorum in either house of 
Congress, what power has that smaller number? 

23. What does the word veto mean? 

24. Why does the Constitution prohibit titles of no- 
bility? 

25. Assign reasons why the command of the army and 
navy is intrusted to the President rather than to Con- 
gress? 

26. In what cases has the President no power of par- 
don? 

27. What is meant, in speaking of courts, by original 
and appellate jurisdiction? 

28. In what court can action against foreign ministers 
be commenced? 

29. Can a person be tried a second time for the same 
offence? 

30. What is a reprieve? 

31. Can either house of Congress adjourn at pleasure? 

32. What is the militia? 



2/6 CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR ElRST GRADE. 

33. Over what district may Congress exercise exclusive 
legislation? 

34. Why have citizens residing in the District of Co- 
lumbia no right to vote there? 

35. When can the writ of habeas corpus be suspended? 

36. What is the President's message? 

37. Can a person be compelled to be a witness against 
aimself? 6 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR SECOND GRADE. 277 



ANSWERS TO CIVIL GOVERNMENT, SECOND GRADE. 

1. "A State is a community of persons living within certain limits 
of territory under a permanent organization which aims to secure 
the prevalence of justice by self-imposed laws." 

2. Control and administration of law. " Civil government is con- 
trol by law exercised by a State over its members." 

3. The State is the whole body of organized people ; the govern- 
ment is subordinate to the State, receiving its power from it and 
being responsible to it, 

4. An absolute monarchy is a government in which the laws are 
made by one person and executed and interpreted by officers ap- 
pointed by him. — A limited monarchy is one having a hereditary 
ruler as executive, a legislative department chosen by the people, 
and a judiciary responsible to the executive. — A republic is a gov- 
ernment in which the laws are made, interpreted, and executed by 
representatives elected by the people. — Russia, England, United 
States. 

5. Executive, legislative, and judicial. 

6. Law is a rule of order established by the State. 

7. Laws made by the legislature are statute laws. — All judicial 
decisions, or principles established by courts, are unwritten or com- 
mon law. 

8. A constitution is the fundamental law with which all other 
laws must accord. 

9. To secure justice to the individual, to promote the general wel- 
fare, and to defend the State. 

10. Justice to the individual may be secured by protecting him in 
the rights of personal security, personal liberty, the right to hold 
private property and the right of religious worship. — The general 
welfare is promoted by the right of taxation and the right of eminent 
domain. The defence of the State is secured by punishing any one 
who violates its laws. 

11. Personal security, personal liberty, the right to hold private 
property, the right of religious belief. — Because they justly belong 
to each man by nature. 

12. A written instrument issued by a judge or court ordering a 
sheriff or similar officer to produce the person in custody, in order 
that it may be determined whether the accused is under lawful 
arrest. — The right of personal liberty. 

13. You may have the body. 

14. The promotion of the general welfare. 

15. To meet public expenses and for purposes of education. 



278 CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR SECOND GRADE. 

16. A right by which the government by making a fair remunera- 
tion to the owner may compel the yielding of private property for 
public use. 

17. Liberty under law. 

18. Any violation of the law whereby the rights of another are in- 
fringed upon. 

19. By securing justice, by executing measures of public utility, 
by fostering industries, and providing education. 

20. It is bound to provide the rudiments of an education for all 
children, and compel them to attend school. 

21. All the interests of the State are directly in the hands of the 
mass of people, and the better educated the people the better will 
be the government. 

22. It should draw without limit upon the wealth and services of 
the people to defend the State. 

23. It is bound to respect their rights. 

24. The law which nations recognize in their intercourse with 
each other. 

25. There is no umpire to settle disputes, and no penalty in case of 
its violation. 

26. Citizens and aliens.— Citizens are those who were born in the 
State or who have become naturalized; aliens are persons residing in 
the country but not citizens. 

27. It is the duty of each citizen to obey the laws of the govern- 
ment, and to defend the State when necessary. 

28. The right to vote. 

29. A civil right. 

30. By voting he directs to the extent of his individual influence 
the administration of government. 

31. When the government is injurious to the public welfare in- 
stead of beneficial, and when all other means of righting the griev- 
ances have failed. 

32. The right to have a voice in the conduct of public affairs. — 
Civil rights are the enjoyments of one's natural rights subject to 
law. 

33. Civil rights. 

34. The affairs of the country were conducted by the Continental 
Congress, and the people relied upon the honor and wisdom of this 
body and acquiesced in its acts. 

35. A written instrument adopted by Congress in 1777, by which 
the colonies styled themselves the United States of America, and 
declared themselves united for common defence, security of liberty, 
and mutual and general welfare. Each State was to retain its sov- 
ereignty, independence, and every power not expressly given to the 
United States Congress. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR SECOND GRADE. 2?<) 

36. (1) It was a league of States and not a nation ; (2) there was 
no power to enforce the enactments of Congress ; (3) there was no 
power to levy and collect taxes • (4) there was no power to regulate 
commerce. 

37. To form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domes- 
tic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the gen- 
eral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to the people and 
their posterity. 

38. 332. After March 3, 1893, there are to be 356 members. 

39. The States are divided into congressional districts, in each o/ 
which the people elect one representative. — Two years. 

40. A representative must be at least twenty -five years old, have 
been at least seven years a citizen of the United States, and when 
elected be an inhabitant of the State which elects him. 

41. Five thousand dollars a year. The presiding officer receives 
eight thousand dollars. 

42. Each Territory sends one person called a delegate, who sits 
with the representatives and takes part in discussions, but has no 
vote. 

43. A vacancy is filled by a new election ordered by the governor. 

44. The apportionment is made after each national census. The 
population of the United States is divided by the number of repre- 
sentatives which has been previously determined by Congress. This 
gives the number of inhabitants entitled to one representative. The 
population of each State is divided by this number, which gives the 
number of representatives to which the State is entitled. One addi- 
tional representative is given to each of the States having the largest 
remainder, until the whole number is reached. Each State must 
have at least one representative. 

45. The House elects one of its members as speaker. The clerk, 
chaplain, and other officers are not members. 

46. The power to present articles of impeachment and the power 
to originate all bills for raising revenue. 

47. The number of States — each State having two senators. 

48. He must be at least thirty years old, have been at least nine 
years a citizen of the United States, and when elected must be an 
inhabitant of the State. 

49. $5000. 

50. They are chosen by the legislature of each State for a term of 
six years. 

51. The appointment is filled in the usual way by the legislature. 
If the legislature is not in session the governor makes a temporary 
appointment till the legislature meets. 

52. The Vice-President of the United States is the presiding officer. 
If he is absent, the Senate chooses a president pro tempore. 

53. The power to try all impeachments. Appointments and re- 



280 CIVIL GOVERNMENT EOR SECOND GRADE. 

movals are made by the President with the consent of the Senate. 
It concurs in treaties made by the President. 

54. It must pass each House by the approval of two thirds of its 
members. 

55. A majority. 

56. After passing both Houses it is sent to the President, who has 
ten days, Sundays excepted, to consider it. If he approves, he 
signs it. If he does not approve the bill, he usually returns it to the 
House in which it originated, with his reasons for not signing it. If 
he does not return it within the ten days, it becomes a law without 
his signature, unless Congress has adjourned before the ten days ex- 
pire. 

57. It is determined by the number of the representative term, 
dating from March 4, 1789, each term lasting two years. 

58. The first Monday in December, unless otherwise appointed by 
law. 

59. Both houses agree upon a day of adjournment, as neither 
house can adjourn for more than three days without the consent of 
the other. 

60. They cannot hold any other civil office under the United 
States. 

61. Mileage or compensation for traveling expenses. 

62. One third of the senators go out of office every two years, and 
this secures to the public the benefit of two thirds of the members 
at all times. 

63. In the House of Representatives the national idea, which was 
for diffusing power among the people, is embodied because its mem- 
bers are chosen directly by the people. The Senate represents the 
federal idea, which favored the concentration of power in the fed- 
eral government, as its members are appointed by legislatures, each 
State being equally represented. 

64. He must be a native citizen, have been a resident of the United 
States at least fourteen years, and be at least thirty-five years of age. 

65. He is chosen by electors. These electors are chosen by the 
people of each State on the Tuesday after the first Monday in No- 
vember, and the electors vote on the second Monday in January. 
They make three lists, each containing the names of the persons 
voted for, and the number of votes of each, which are signed by all 
the electors and sealed. A person is appointed to carry one list to 
the president of the Senate at the seat of national government an- 
other is sent to the same person by mail, and the third is delivered to 
the judge of the United States court for the district in which the 
electors meet. 

66. 444 (Jan. 1894). Each State is entitled to as many as it has 
members of Congress. 

67. The House of Representatives proceeds to choose a President 
from the three persons having the highest number of electoral votes. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR SECOND GRADE. 28 1 

Two thirds of the States must be represented, the voting being by 
ballot and by States, each State having one vote. A majority of the 
States is necessary for election. If no choice is made by March 4th 
the Vice-President becomes President. 

68. In case of removal by death or resignation or impeachment, 
the Vice-President becomes President. In case of the removal, 
death, resignation, or inability of both the President and Vice- 
President, the Secretary of State, if there be one, shall become 
President, and hold office during the remainder of the presidential 
term of four years; and in case there is no Secretary of State, or in 
case of his removal, death, resignation, or inability, then the 
Secretary of the Treasury, and next in order the Secretary of War, 
the Attorney-General, the Postmaster-General, the Secretary of the 
Navy, and the Secretary of the Interior. 

69. Four years. Salary, $50,000. 

70. The Executive Mansion with its furniture, fuel, lights, care 
of grounds, etc. 

71. It cannot be increased during his term of office. 

72. He is commander-in-chief of the military force of the United 
States; has power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against 
the United States; with the consent of the Senate he makes treaties, 
appoints civil officers and the judges and officers of the United 
States courts; he transmits a message to Congress at the opening of 
each annual session, and sees that all laws are faithfully executed. 

73. Department of State, of the Treasury, of War, of the Navy, 
of the Interior, of Justice, the Post office Department, and the 
Department of Agriculture. 

74. The appointment is made by the President with the consent 
of the Senate. 

75. He is president- of the Senate, but has no vote unless the Sen- 
ate be equally divided. In case of vacancy in the office of President 
the Vice-President assumes the duties of President. 

76. $8000. 

77. By distinct ballot, in the same way and at the same time as 
the President. 

78. The Senate elects a president pi*o tempore. 

79. The Supreme Court. 

80. One chief-justice and eight associate-justices. — They are ap- 
pointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. 

81. The chief- justice receives $10,500 ; the associate- justices, 
$10,000, per year. 

82. For life or during good behavior. 

83. The first Monday in December. 84. Melville W. Fuller. 

85. There are nine Circuit Courts of Appeals, the United States 
being divided into nine judicial circuits. Next come the nine Cir- 
cuit Courts. 

86. A justice of the Supreme Court, assisted by a circuit justice. 

87. The judicial circuits are divided into districts, in each of 
which is a district court. 

88. The district court has a judge, a clerk, a marshal, and an at- 
torney. 



282 CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR SECOND GRADE. 

89. A court to try all claims against the government for the pay- 
ment of money, and to make such awards as the court deems just. 

90. Congress has power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts 
and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence 
and general welfare of the United States. 

91. A contribution imposed by the government on individuals for 
the service of the State.— Duties and imposts are taxes upon articles 
imported or exported.— Excises are taxes upon articles manufac- 
tured or produced for home consumption. 

92. Direct taxes include poll-tax and tax on land, houses, and 
other real estate ; indirect taxes include duties, imposts, and excises. 

93. Specific duties are proportioned to the quantity of the article 
imported ; ad valorem duties are proportioned to the market value of 
the article in the country which produces it. 

94. It has power to borrow money on the credit of the United 
States. 

95. The power to provide for a revenue and to control all expendi- 
ture of it. 

96. It has entire control. 

97. First, one must declare his intention to become a citizen of 
United States and make oath to the same before a circuit or a dis- 
trict court, or a State court having a seal. At least two years must 
pass before he can take the oath of allegiance, — that is, prove by 
witness upon oath that he has lived in the United States at least five 
years, and in the State in which he wishes to be naturalized at least 
one year ; that during the time his character and deportment have 
been good. He then makes a written declaration, supporting it by 
oath, that he renounces allegiance to all foreign powers and will sup- 
port the Constitution of the United States. 

98. Under the power of establishing " post-offices and post roads." 

99. A patent is a written instrument securing to the inventor the 
exclusive right to manufacture and sell his invention. A copyright 
is exclusive privilege to print, publish, and sell copies of writings 
or drawings. — A patent is issued for seventeen years. A copyright 
is issued only to citizens or residents of the United States and for 
twenty-eight years, with the privilege of an extension of fourteen 
years. 

100. Piracy is murder or robbery on the sea, or any offence which 
if committed on land would be punishable with death. Treason is 
levying war against the United States, or adhering to the enemies of 
the United States. 

101. Congress has the power to declare the punishment for these. 

102. Congress has power to declare war, grant letters of marque 
and reprisal, raise and support armies, establish armories and arse- 
nals, military and naval academies, navy-yards, and to organize, 
train, and arm a militia. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENI FOR FIRST GRADE. 283 

103. The power to dispose of and make all needful rules and 
regulations respecting it. 

104. The people form a State constitution and submit it to Con 
gress with a petition for admission, or Congress passes an enabling 
act allowing the people to form a constitution and authorizing the 
President to issue a proclamation recognizing the new State. 

105. No ex-post-facto law shall be passed. 

106. In two ways : first, by Congress, two thirds of both houses 
agreeing ; second, by a convention called by Congress upon applica- 
tion of the legislatures of two thirds of the States. 

107. It guarantees religious freedom, freedom of speech and of 
the press, the right of assembly and petition, the right to keep and 
bear arms, exemption from quartering soldiers, security from un- 
lawful search and seizure, prompt and impartial justice and trial by 
jury, exemption from excessive bail and from cruel and unusual 
punishments. 

108. The 11th relates to the judicial power of the United States. 
The 12th prescribes the manner of electing the President and Vice 
President. 

109. The 13th abolished and prohibited slavery. The 14th guar- 
anteed political and civil rights to all citizens ; changed the rule of 
apportionment of representatives and direct taxes, to adapt it to a 
wholly free population ; excluded from any office under the United 
State and in the States those rebels who had violated their oath of 
allegiance, unless Congress by a two-thirds vote removed this dis- 
ability ; established the validity of the public debt of the United 
States ; forbade the payment of any debt incurred in aid of rebel- 
lion, or any claim for emancipated slaves ; and gave to Congress 
power to enforce these provisions by legislation. The 15th gave the 
right of suffrage to the freedmen. 

110. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the 
United States may be impeached. Articles of impeachment are 
prepared by the House of Representatives and delivered to the 
Senate, and a committee is selected from the House to conduct the 
prosecution. The Senate conducts the trial. After the evidence 
is heard, and the arguments are made, each senator must answer 
" Guilty" or "Not guilty" to each of the articles. A two-thirds 
vote is necessary to conviction. 



ANSWERS TO CIVIL GOVERNMENT, FIRST GRADE. 

1. Senators, representatives, and all persons holding any office of 
trust or profit under the United States. 

2. The electors voted for the two persons without specifying the 



284 CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR FIRST GRADE. 

office, and the one who received the majority of votes was President, 
and the one receiving the next highest number Vice-President. 

3. It means that a person found guilty of treason shall not be pre- 
vented thereby from transmitting property to his heirs. 

4. The preamble. 

5. The representatives, being chosen directly by the people, reflect 
their will, and so it was provided that they might be changed every 
two years. 

6. It diffuses power, and one house acts as a check upon the 
other. 

7. The Senate is a perpetual body ; its members are elected for six 
years instead of for two ; it has fewer members ; they are elected 
by the legislatures of the States instead of by the people , the quali- 
fications are higher ; States have equal power in the Senate, but 
unequal power in the House of Representatives. 

8. The Senate corresponds to the House of Lords, and the House 
of Representatives to the House of Commons. 

9. In the formation of Congress the federal and national ideas 
were in conflict. A compromise was made. The Senate embodies 
the federal idea, or equality of State representation. 

10. From the consent of the governed. 

11. The chief-justice. 

12. When the Senate is equally divided. 

13 Each house determines its own rules of procedure. 

14. Each house keeps a journal of its proceedings, which it is 
obliged to publish. 

15 The governor of the State from which such person has fled 
sends a requisition to the governor of the State in which he is found, 
demanding his delivery. 

16. All the persons employed by ihe United States, from members 
of the Cabinet to the lowest clerks in the post-office, except the 
army and navy. 

17. By making the term longer than a representative's term, a 
body of wiser and more experienced men is obtained The longer 
term gives this body an independence of popular impulses, and 
thus serves to check hasty legislation by the House. 

18. By the vote of the senators, each State has two votes ; in the 
Continental Congress each colony had one vote, determined by the 
majority of its delegates. 

19. They are arranged in three classes, so that one third of the 
senators retires every two years. 

20. When it is about to adjourn. 

21. If only a bare majority were necessary for conviction, party 
spirit might influence the decision and political discord result. If 

17 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT FOR FIRST GRADE. 285 

more than a two-thirds vote were required, justice might be delayed 
and misgovernment go unpunished. 

22. The power to compel the attendance of absent members. 

23. I forbid. 

24. Because any division of the people in classes would be con- 
trary to the fundamental principle of the government, — "all men 
are created equal." 

25. Necessity might require the calling out of the army during 
the adjournment of Congress ; again, firmness and promptitude are 
necessary to render any army effective, and Congress would consume 
time in discussing and determining what to do. 

26. In cases of impeachment. 

27. Courts in which suits may be begun have original jurisdic- 
tion, and courts to which suits are appealed have apellate jurisdic- 
tion. 

28. In the Supreme Court of the United States. 

29. He cannot. 

30. A reprieve is the suspension of a sentence for an interval of 
time, thereby delaying execution. 

31. Not for more than three days without the consent of the 
other. 

32. The militia consists of all the able-bodied men of the nation, 
between certain ages (except a large number of persons holding of- 
fice under the States or the United States, convicted criminals, and 
men of unsound mind), who may be called into service in time of 
war or insurrection. 

33. Over the District of Columbia- 

34. Because it is not a part of any State and has no representation 
in Congress. 

35. In cases of rebellion or when the public safety demands it. 

36. It is a written document sent to Congress upon its convening, 
embodying the President's opinions and suggestions as to legislation, 
and is accompanied by full reports of the executive departments of 
the government. 

37. He cannot. 



286 READING FOR THIRD GRADE. 



CHAPTER X. 
READING. 

iFor Cfjtrtr ©ratre. 

1. What is the word-method of teaching reading ? 

2. Name and define two other methods. 

3. What method is now very widely adopted ? 

4. What argument is there for using script, rather than 
print, when beginning to teach reading ? 

5. State the advantages of teaching beginners to read 
by means of the blackboard and crayon, rather than by 
chart and printed book. 

6. Name several ways of giving variety to reading- 
lessons. 

7. Name three ways by which words may be empha- 
sized. 

8. What words admit of emphasis by time ? 

9. What are inflections ? 

10. What shade of meaning is given by upward in- 
flections ? 

11. What idea is conveyed by downward inflections ? 

12. What inflection should be given to a question 
when the asker expects either the answer Yes or No, but 
does not know which will be given ? 

13. What inflection should be used when one knows 
the answer will be Yes, or when it will be No? 



READING FOR THIRD GRADE. 287 

14. By what organs is the voice produced ? What 
are the speech-organs ? 

15. What note represents the average natural pitch of 
the voice ? 

16. Where, with reference to this, are the three grades 
of pitch — high, middle, and low ? 

17. How may the degrees of rate in reading be in- 
dicated ? 

18. Name three degrees of force. 

19. To what extent would you require pupils to read at 
sight ? 

20. How may poor enunciation in reading be corrected ? 

21. State two plans for preventing pupils from mem- 
orizing reading lessons. 

22. What plan is to be pursued with a pupil who does 
not read loud enough ? 

23. What benefits result from the use of supplementary 
reading matter? 

24. Give your method of teaching reading to a second- 
reader class. 



288 READING FOR THIRD GRADE. 



ANSWERS TO READING-THIRD GRADE. 

1. A method by which children are taught to recognize words 
as wholes, these being regarded as the representations of ideas. 

2. The sentence and the phonic method. The sentence-method 
is based upon the principle that, as a thought is the " unit of think- 
ing, " a sentence is the " unit of expression," and consists, first, in 
putting the child in possession of the thought, and then placing 
before him the sentence which is the expression of that thought. 
Sentences are therefore treated as wholes, as words are in the 
word-method. 

In the phonic method, no mention is made of the names of the 
letters; but beginning with the short vowel sounds and using for a 
time only one sound for each consonant or digraph, the pupil learns 
the power of the letters as they enter into new combinations. New 
sounds are gradually introduced, until the pupil is able to help 
himself in the pronunciation of words. 

3. A method which has resulted from combining parts of the 
sentence, the word, and the phonic method. 

4. If script is used, the child learns at once to write by copying 
on his slate the words and sentences of the reading-lesson. The 
transition from script to print has been proved by experience to be 
a very easy and natural one. Thus there is an economy of time, 
as the child has no use for printing. 

5. "First, the words are created by the hand of the teacher be- 
fore the eyes of the children; second, the word is written alone in 
large letters, separated from all other objects of interest except the 
object it names; third, the attention of the little group is thus 
directed to one object in a very simple manner; fourth, words are 
learned by repeated acts of association, and charts and primers do 
not repeat words times enough for the child to learn them." — 
Parker. 

6. Let the pupils read words in turn around the class; let the 
teacher read every other word in turn with each pupil of the class; 
let the pupils read from pause to pause in turn; let the teacher call 
upon members of the class to read; let each pupil read till he 
makes a mistake, the one discovering the mistake to read next; 
direct one pupil to read till another is called upon. 

7. By speaking the word with more force; by speaking the word 
slowly or giving it more time; and by speakiLg the word with the 
upward or the downward slide of the voice. 

8. Words containing the longer vowel sounds. 

9. Inflections are slides of the voice, either upward or down- 
ward, or a union of these. 

10. "All upward inflections have the general idea of negative- 
ness, of suspension, of incompleteness." — Barlow. 



READING FOR THIRD GRADE. 289 

11. " Downward inflections have the general idea of posiliveness, 
completeness, determination, authority, denunciation, or terror." — 
Barlow. 

12. The rising inflection. 

13. The failing inflection. 

14. By the chest and larynx; the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate. 

15. The middle D. 

16. The middle pitch is upon the middle D; high pitch upon C 
or B, above this; low pitch upon the G or F iJ below this. 

17. By the number of syllables uttered in a second. Moderate 
rate, four syllables in a second; rapid rate, six syllables in a 
second; slow rate, two syllables in a second. 

18. Loud, medium, and soft forces. 

19. For the younger pupils at least half the time with carefully 
graded reading matter. Older pupils should be given more than 
this. 

20. Give the pupil vocal drill upon the sounds of the letters. 
Drill upon selected sentences containing words not properly enun- 
ciated. If the pupil is a fast reader, require him to read slowly, 
making each word especially distinct. Send pupil to a distant part 
of the room, or into the hall when this can be done, and require 
him to read so that the class can understand every word. 

21. Memorizing comes from reading and re-reading the same les- 
sons. Give the pupil, then, much supplemental reading. 

Another plan is to finish each paragraph thoroughly before taking 
up the next, and after the lesson is finished do not read it again for 
a long while. 

22. If the pupil is timid, have concert reading till he has gained 
confidence, though the teacher must use great care with reading in 
concert. If it is from a weak voice, write sentences on the black- 
board requiring a good deal of expression, and by emulation see 
which pupil can read it most distinctly and with full voice. 

Oftentimes special drill must be used. 

23. It makes ready and intelligent readers. It gives power to 
get the thought rapidly, and in telling what has been read, to convey 
the thought" easily to others. It enlarges the pupil's vocabulary, 
gives him familiarity with styles, and increases his general informa- 
tion. 

24. Left for the student. 



29O RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION. 



CHAPTER XI. 
RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION. 
jFor .Scconfc €&ra&e. 

1. What phases of punctuation belong to rhetoric, and 
what to elementary composition? 

2. What numbers should be written in words, and what 
in figures? 

Punctuate the following, and give reasons: 

3. England Sir is a nation which still I hope respecta 
and formerly adored freedom 

4. The interests of large classes had been unfavorably 
affected by the establishment of the new diligences and 
as usual many persons were from mere stupidity and ob- 
stinacy disposed to clamor against the innovation simply 
because it was an innovation 

5. I have observed that he was a simple good-natured 
man he was moreover a kind neighbor and an obedient 
henpecked husband 

6. Vision and manipulation these in their countless 
and indirect and transfigured forms are the two cooperat- 
ing factors in all intellectual progress 

7. Well then replied his sister come with me 

DICTION. 

8. What is meant by diction? 

9. Define purity, propriety, and precision of diction. 

10. Distinguish between an obsolete and an obsolescent 
word. 



RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION 29 1 

11. What do you understand when speaking of the use 
of a word that it is reputable, national, present? 

12. What do you understand by a, provincialism? 

13. What is meant by a barbarism? 

14. What is a solecism ? 

15. What faults are most general in the selection of 
words? 

16. What do you understand slang to be? 

Tell what property of diction is violated in these sen- 
tences, giving the word you regard as proper: 

17. He considers the design his masterpiece. 

18. You want to get your ticket to-day. 

19. The majority is predicated on the estimations 
made by the experts of the associated press. 

20. I expect they sailed yesterday. 

21. A workman is often encouraged by a little praise. 

22. He became enthused upon the subject. 

23 . The noise in the room overhead aggravates me im- 
mensely. 

24. The load of coal was dumped by the gate. 

25. His aunt is a saleslady in that store. 



QUALITIES OF STYLE. 

26. Define style. 

27. Define a periodic sentence; a loose sentence; a bal- 
anced sentence. 

28. Name four distinct methods of varying a sentence. 

29. When is a sentence said to be clear? 

30. Mention four ways in which clearness of expression 
may be secured. 

Eeconstruct these sentences, making them clear: 

31. He had inherited some acquaintance with medici- 
nal herbs and their preparation from his mother. 

32. I wish this unnatural struggle was over that we 



292 FOR SECOND GRADE. 

might again meet our friends and relatives in peace and 
love from the bottom of my heart. 

33. Miss Peyton ornamented in front with a broad bor- 
der of lace wore on her head a cap of exquisite lawn. 

34. The exclusive education of English boys comprised 
only the classics up to a very recent period, and that in a 
pedantic way. 

35. What is meant by unity of a sentence? 

36. Mention five faults to be avoided in securing this. 

37. How may a sentence be made strong or energetic? 

38. What is meant by harmony? 

39. What is a paragraph? 

40. What is meant by the "squinting" construction? 

41. Distinguish between ambiguity and obscurity. 

42. What is meant by the "splitting of particles" ? 

43. Write three idiomatic sentences. 
Render these sentences strong in expression: 

44. I saw the place where the battle was fought for the 
first time yesterday. 

45. The enemy arrived at, but did not proceed into, 
the town. 

46. They descended down into the ravine. 

47. I am sure that the very identical person to whom 
you allude was walking in the park this afternoon. 

48. The use of tobacco is a habit which many men are 
slaves to. 

49. It is a very general custom for men and boys usu- 
ally to take a morning bath in the waters of the bay, even 
when they often have first to break the ice. 

50. The warp of English is Anglo-Saxon, but the woof 
is Roman, as well as the embroidery. 



RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION 293 

FIGURES. 

51. Define figurative language. 

52. Name four figures founded on comparison, and de- 
fine each, giving an example. 

53. Name five figures founded on contrast, define each, 
giving an example. 

54. Name and define three figures founded on associa- 
tion. 

55. Give an example of each. 

56. Name and define two figures founded on imagina- 
tion, giving an example of each. 

57. Define exclamation. Give an example. 

58. How are parable and fable related to allegory? 

59. Distinguish between fable and parable. 

60. Name the figures illustrated by the sentences given 
below. If any are faulty, point out and correct the faults. 

61. " Truth, like the angel in Jacob's vision, bids me 
up and on." 

62. He was swamped in the meshes of his argument. 

63. The house has been spoiled by improvements. 

64. "We were ever from the cradle bred together." 

65. "It is well to die, if there be gods; and it is sad to 
live, if there be none." 

66. Life flows on like a river, ever the same, never the 
same. 

67. "Words are the counters of wise men," and the 
money of fools. 

68. Storms shall sob themselves to sleep. 

69. You are a nice girl to treat me in that way. 

FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 

70. Into what two main classes are all forms of com- 
position divided? 

71. Name the six main kinds of poetic composition. 



294 FOR SECOND GRADE. 

72. Distinguish between a comedy and a tragedy. 

73. In what particulars do epic and dramatic poetry 
differ? 

74. What is scanning? 

75. Name the measure of the following extracts, mark- 
ing the feet in each: 

76. " For the moon never beams, without bringing me 

dreams 
Of the beautiful Annabel Lee." 

77. "The splendor falls on castle walls, 

And snowy summits old in story." 

78. ' ( As in the youth of the world, in the days before 
evil and conscience." 

79. "All the hearts of men were softened 

By the pathos of his music." 

80. What is meant by the "time-unit" in scanning? 

81. Name ten forms of prose composition. 

82. By illustration, show what is meant with reference 
to letters by the following: the heading; the address; the 
subscription; the sujoerscription. 

83. To what species of composition would you assign 
the following works? — 

(a) Scott's "Lay of the Last Minstrel;" 

(b) Hawthorne's "Scarlet Letter;" 

(c) George Eliot's "Silas Marner;" 

(d) Halleck's "Marco Bozzaris;" 

(e) Bryant's " Planting of the Apple-tree;" 
(/) Irving's "The Voyage;" 

(g) Tennyson's "Enoch Arden;" 
(h) " Topics of the Time," in Tlie Century; 
(i) " The Editor's Literary Record," in Harper's Mag- 
azine ; 

(j) Helen Hunt's "Bits of Travel Abroad;" 
(k) Bos well's "Johnson." 

84. Define wit. 



RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION 2% 

85. What is a pun? 

86. What is meant by retort? What by repartee? 

87. What is satire ? What sarcasm? 

88. What is meant by a burlesque? What by a parody? 

89. Define humor. 

90. In what does it differ from wit? 

91. What is pathos? 

92. Mention the qualities that constitute the beautiful 
in writing. 

93. Mention the qualities that are requisite in order 
that a piece of composition shall be sublime. 



296 FOR SECOND GRADE. 






ANSWERS TO RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION, 
SECOND GRADE. 

1. The rules for the colon, semicolon, dash, parenthesis, brackets, 
and the more difficult ones for the comma are taught in rhetoric ; 
while those for the simpler uses of the comma, the use of the period, 
the exclamation and interrogation points, are taught in elementary 
composition. 

2. In words: distances (as, forty miles farther, eight feet higher); 
time of day (as, eleven o'clock); population (as, twelve millions). In 
figures: the day of the month; the year; amounts of money (as, 
$500.50), per cents (as, 19.6 per cent). 

3. " England, sir, is a nation which still, I hope, respects, and for- 
merly adored, freedom." Sir is a noun of address; I hope is a paren- 
thetical expression. Comma after adored, as freedom is also the ob- 
ject of respects. 

4. " The interests of large classes had been unfavorably affected by 
the establishment of the new diligences; and, as usual, many persons 
were, from mere stupidity and obstinacy, disposed to clamor against 
the innovation, simply because it was an innovation." Semicolon 
after diligences, as the clause is not closely connected with the follow- 
ing one ; commas inclose as usual, being a parenthetical expression; 
commas after were and before disposed, because the auxiliary is sepa- 
rated from the principal verb ; comma after innovation, to separate 
the clause which follows, as it is dependent. 

5 "I have observed that he was a simple good-natured man; he 
was, moreover, a kind neighbor, and an obedient henpecked hus- 
band." Semicolon after man, because the clauses are connected in 
thought but not grammatically; commas inclose moreover, it being a 
parenthetical word; comma after neighbor, as it is coordinate with 
the following phrase. 

6. " Vision and manipulation — these, in their countless and indi- 
rect and transfigured forms, are the two cooperating factors in all 
intellectual progress." The dash is used after manipulation, to mark 
the transition from particulars to the generalization which includes 
them. The phrase coming between the subject these and tbe verb 
are is inclosed in commas, because the verb is considerably removed 
from its subject. 

7. "Well, then,'* replied his sister, "come with me." Comma 
after well, it being a parenthetical word; commas inclose replied his 
sister, because the words of the writer have been inserted in the 
quoted words; quotation-marks inclose the two parts of the quota- 
tion. 

8. Diction treats of the selection and right use of words. 



RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION 297 

9. Purity of diction is using such words only as belong to a lan- 
guage, and whose usage is sanctioned by the best speakers and 
writers; propriety of diction is using only such words as express the 
meaning which a person intends to convey; precision of diction is 
selecting only such words as express just what is meant and no 
more. 

10. An obsolete word is one no longer used; an obsolescent word 
is one falling into disuse. 

11. Reputable words are those used by educated writers; national, 
are those neither local nor foreign; present words are the usage of 
the generation in which one lives. 

12. Words used only in certain sections of the country are pro- 
vincialisms. 

13. Any violation of purity is a barbarism. 

14. A violation of syntax is a solecism. 

15. The use of provincialisms and barbarisms and slang. 

16. Slang is a word or expression created without authority, or 
misused. 

17. He regards the design, etc. Propriety violated. 

18. You ought to get, etc. Propriety violated. 

19. The majority is predicted, etc. Propriety violated 

20. I suspect, etc. Propriety violated. 

21. A workman is often encouraged by a little commenCatiori. 
Precision violated. 

22. He became enthusiastic, etc. Purity violated. 

23 The noise in the room overhead annoys me greatly. Precision 
violated. 

24. The load of coal was emptied by the gate. Propriety violated. 

25. His aunt is a saleswoman in that store. Purity violated. 

26. That part of rhetoric which treats of the mode of expression 
is termed style. 

27. A periodic sentence is one so constructed that the main point 
is kept in suspense till the very close. A loose sentence is one so 
constructed that it may be ended in two or more places and each 
time give a complete meaning. A balanced sentence is one containing 
two clauses similar in form and contrasted in meaning. 

28 (1) Direct quotations may be made indirect quotations; (2) in- 
finitive phrases may be changed into clauses; (3) adjective phrases 

. may be changed to relative clauses; (4) absolute phrases may be 
changed into adverb clauses. 

29 When its meaning cannot be mistaken. 

30. (1) Place the adverb so that it cannot easily be taken to qualify 
any other than the intended word; (2) use the same care with regard 
to clauses; (3) avoid the "squinting construction;" (4) avoid am- 
biguity in the use of pronouns. 



298 FOR SECOND GRADE. 

31. He bad inherited from his mother some acquaintance with 
medicinal herbs and their preparation. 

32. I wish from the bottom of my heart this unnatural struggle 
was over, that we might again meet our friends and relatives in peace 
and love. 

33. Miss Peyton wore on her head a cap of exquisite lawn orna- 
mented in front with a broad border of lace. 

34. The exclusive education of English boys, up to a very recent 
period, comprised only the classics, and that in a pedantic way. 

35. So constructing a sentence that the impression it leaves upon 
the mind is one undivided whole. 

36. (1) Changing the subject of thought; (2) crowding together 
things unconnected; (3) inserting relative clauses into relative 
clauses; (4) unnecessary parentheses; (5) adding supplementary 
clauses after the sentence is apparently closed. 

37. (1) Omit all redundant words; (2) avoid the frequent use of 
very and other intensive expressions; (3) use words marking connec- 
tion or transition with care; (4) give important words a prominent 
position in the sentence. 

38. Such combination of words as will please the ear by smooth- 
ness of sound. 

39. A group of sentences closely related in thought. 

40. A word or expression in such position in a sentence that it can 
he connected in meaning with what is before or what follows it. 

41. A sentence has the fault of ambiguity when it conveys two or 
more meanings; obscurity, when the meaning cannot be determined. 

42. Separating a preposition from the noun which it governs : 
e.g., I apeak relative to, and in approval of, the plan. 

43. The party took place yesterday. The man was beside himself 
with rage. Under the circumstances, he fell asleep. 

44. I saw for the first time yesterday the place where the battle 
was fought. 

45. The enemy arrived at the town, but did not proceed into it. 

46. They descended into the ravine. 

47. I am sure that the identical person to whom you allude was 
walking in the park this afternoon. 

48. The use of tobacco is a habit to which many men are slaves. 

49. It is a general custom for men and boys to take a morning 
bath in the waters of the bay, even when they have first to break the 
ice. 

50. The warp of English is Anglo-Saxon, but the woof as well as 
the embroidery is Roman, 

51. Any deviation from the plain, ordinary way of speaking. 

52. (1) Simile, formally likening one thing to another. Exam- 
ple: "Fortune is fickle as the wind." (2) Metaphor, an implied 



RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION 299 

comparison. Example: "The golden water came again upon the 
Wall." (3) Allegory, a description of one thing under the image of 
another, usually making a complete story. Example: "Pilgrim's 
Progress." (4) Personification, attributing life to things inanimate. 
Example: "The morning stars mng together." 

53. (1) Antithesis is a form of expression which impresses an idea 
upon the mind by bringing opposites into one conception. Example: 
" To Adam paradise was a home; to the good among his descendants, 
home is a paradise." (2) Interrogation consists in putting opinions 
in the form of questions for the purpose of expressing one's views 
more strongly. Example: "Shall not the Judge of all the earth 
do right ?" (3) Irony is ridiculing anything under a pretence of 
praising it. Example: "No doubt but ye are the people, and 
wisdom shall die with you !" (4) Epigram is a figure in which the 
apparent meaning is contradictory of the real meaning. Example: 
" Language is the art of concealing thought." (5) Climax is a figure 
in which there is an increase of strength step by step from particu- 
lars of a lower to a higher interest. Example: " The power of man, 
his greatness, his glory, depend on essential qualities." 

54. (1) Metonymy is a figure in which the name of one object is 
put for some other, the two being so closely related that one suggests 
the other. (2) Synecdoche is a figure in which the name of a part 
is put for the whole or the whole is put for a part. (3) Allusion is a 
figure by which some word or phrase in a sentence calls to mind by 
means of some likeness something which is not mentioned. 

55. (1) The dish was well cooked. (2) Thirty sails were seen off 
the coast. (3) Where is "False, fleeting, but not quite perjured 
Clarence"? 

56. Apostrophe is a figure in which, instead of speaking of an ob- 
ject or individual in the third person, we address it in the second 
person. Example: "Blow, blow thou winter wind !" Hyperbole is 
a figure which consists in representing things greater or less, better 
or worse, than they really are. Example: " He was a man of bound- 
less knowledge." 

57. Exclamation is a figure which expresses a thing strongly by 
expressing emotion on account of it. Example: " What a piece of 
work is man ! how noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties !" 

58. Allegory is a term applied to extended works. Short allegor- 
ical stories are called fables or parables. 

59. Any short allegorical story is called a fable except when it re- 
lates to the Holy Scripture, when it is a parable. 

60. 61. The figure of personification is embodied in " Truth "; 
"like the angel in Jacob's vision," is a simile. 

62. Metaphor. It is faulty in that it is a mixed metaphor. 

63. Epigram. 

64. A metonymy is found in the word " cradle " 

65. Antithesis. 



3<DO FOR SECOND GRADE. 

66. There is a metaphor in "flows;" a simile in "like a river;" 
"ever the same, never the same," form an antithesis. 

67. " Counters" and "money" are metaphors. 

68. Personification. 

69. Irony. 

70. Poetry and prose. 

71. Epic, dramatic, lyric, elegiac, pastoral, didactic. 

72. Comedy aims to amuse, and deals with the topics of common 
life. It is full of ridicule and satire, and generally ends in the 
marriage or some good fortune of the principal characters. Tragedy 
is serious and dignified, having for its subject some great transac- 
tion. It delineates strong passions, and especially scenes of suffering 
and death, and generally ends in the death of the chief character. 

73. They differ in form. What the epic relates as having occurred, 
the dramatic represents, its form being exclusively that of dialogue. 

74. Scanning is resolving a verse into its metrical feet. 

75. 76. | FSr the moon | n6v6r beams | without bring | Ing mS 

dreams | 
| Of the beau | tiful Ann | abel Lee. | 
Anapaestic tetrameter alternating with trimeter. 
„~ I Th6 splCn | dSr falls | on cas | tie walls I 
' I And snow | y sum | mits old | In story. | 
Iambic tetrameter. 
78. | As In the | youth of the | world, In the | days befSre | evil 
and | conscience. 
Dactylic hexameter. 

All thS | hearts of | mCn were | softened 
By the | pathos | of his | music. 
Trochaic tetrameter. 

80. The interval between two accents, which may be left vacant 
or filled up with one or more short unaccented syllables. 

81. Letters, diaries, news, editorials, reviews, essays, discourses, 
treatises, travels, history, fiction. 

82. Heading: 642 Broad wav, New York, 

June'lst, 1886. 
George Adams, 

Dear Sir, — 
Subscription: Respectfully yours, 



79. 



Address: To George Adams, 

73 Pine St., 

N. Y. 
Superscription: Mr. George Adams, 

73 Pine St., 

New York. 



Paul Jones. 



RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION. 30 1 

83. ('/) Metrical romance; (b) romance; (c) novel; (d) lyric, (^pas- 
toral poetry; (/) travel; (g) metrical tale; (h) editorial; (i) reviews; 
(J) travel; (k) biography. 

84. Wit is a quality of style resulting from the discovery of an 
unexpected relation between ideas. This discovery produces sur- 
prise, but no higher emotion. 

85. A pun is a witticism in which a word agreeing in sound with 
another is used instead of it. 

86. A retort is a sharp-pointed reply turning back on the assailant 
the censure or derision he has given. A repartee is a good-natured 
reply to some witty observation without any loss of good humor on 
either side. 

87. A species of wit used to expose follies and vices and reform 
abuses. Sarcasm is used only to scourge follies and vices. 

88. A burlesque is any degradation of a dignified subject or an 
elevation of a mean subject. A parody is a burlesque imitating 
something serious. 

89. Humor is wit infused with good-nature and sympathy. 

90. Wit is concentrated and comes by intervals and flashes, while 
humor is capable of being continued for almost any length of time. 

91. Pathos is a quality of style expressing sorrow or grief, or 
sympathy with these. 

92. Concrete ideas render composition beautiful because they call 
up in the mind, through the material objects w T hich they represent, 
form, color, and motion ; harmonious language, figures, and lofty 
sentiments, when suitably expressed, also contribute to beauty of 
style. 

93. Simplicity of expression, representations of great power, of 
strong moral purpose, of mystery, of vastness of time or space, 
contribute to the sublime in writing. 






CHAPTER XII. 

PHYSICS, 
ffov ffivst (Sttitjt. 

PROPERTIES OF MATTER. 

1. Of what is matter composed ? 

2. Define a molecule. An atom. 

3. "What is force ? What distinction is made between 
molar forces, molecular forces, and atomic forces ? 

4. State the relation which exists between molecules in 
solids, liquids, and gases. 

5. What is Sir AVm. Thomson's estimate as to the aver- 
age distance between molecules in liquids and solids ? 

6. Define cohesion; adhesion. 

7. Define hardness; ductility; malleability; elasticity. 

8. How is cohesive force related to crystallization ? 

9. What is compressibility, and in what state is matter 
most readily compressed ? 

10. Is the solution of a body due to cohesion or adhe- 
sion? 

MECHANICS OF FLUIDS AND SOLIDS. 

11. What is capillarity ? Give illustrations. 

12. What is surface tension ? 

13. Can adhesion exist between solids and gases ? 

14. What is osmosis ? Give an illustration. 

15. Why does heat expel gases from liquids ? 

302 



PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 303 

16. Why, as a rule, do bodies expand when heated and 
contract when cooled? 

IT. How does an increase of surface affect adhesion ? 

18. Illustrate adhesion between solids and liquids. 

19. What is gravity ? What is weight ? 

20. A body of 2000 pounds' weight at the surface of the 
earth will weigh how much 4000 miles above the surface of 
the earth, calling the earth's radius 4000 miles ? 

21. How far will a body fall in the 7th second ? 

22. Two pendulums are respectively 25 and 3C inches 
long. How do the times of their vibrations compare ? 

23. What is the centre of gravity f Must this always 
reside within the body ? 

24. What is equilibrium ? What is stable and unstable 
equilibrium ? 

25. What principle in hydrostatics is taken advantage 
of in the Hydrostatic Press ? 

26. What principle is taken advantage of in making 
Artesian Wells ? 

27. What is specific gravity ? 

28. Taking the specific gravity of petroleum as .88 and 
the weight of a quart of water as two and one half pounds, 
find how many gallons of petroleum will weigh fifty 
pounds. 

29. How can the pressure of the atmosphere be shown ? 
What is it to the square inch ? 

30. What is an air-pump ? Is it possible to obtain a 
perfect vacuum with this machine ? 

31. How can the expansion of gases be shown ? 

32. What instrument illustrates the pressure of the 
atmosphere ? 

33. Does the atmospheric pressure vary ? How is this 
shown ? 

34. What is the atmospheric pressure when the barome- 
ter stands at 26-J in. ? 



304 PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 

35. A cubic foot of gas under a pressure of one atmos- 
phere is put under a pressure of two atmospheres. What 
volume will the gas occupy ? 

36. What is inertia ? 

37. What is motion ? 

38. Define work. 

39. What is a foot pound ? 

40. For what is this unit used ? 

41. What is energy ? 

42. What is kinetic energy ? What potential energy ? 

43. Find the energy of a body weighing 41 pounds and 
moving at the rate of 26 ft. per second. 

44. What is the law of action and reaction ? 

45. How many kinds of levers are there ? Describe 
each. 

46. A lever of the second class is 5 ft. long, the weight 
is 300 pounds, and the fulcrum is 20 inches from the 
weight. What power is required to lift the weight ? 

47. What principle is involved in the wheel and axle ? 
In the pulley ? 

48. There are four wheels in an upper pulley and four 
in the lower pulley, with the rope fastened to the lower 
part of the upper pulley. What power is required to 
hoist two tons (4000 lbs.) ? 

SOUND. 

49. What property must a sounding body possess ? 

50. Define vibration and amplitude. 

51. Explain the difference between a transverse and a 
longitudinal vibration. 

52. What are the nodes and ventral segments of a vi- 
brating body ? 

53. In what ratio does the intensity of sound diminish 
as the distance increases ? 

54. On what does intensity of sound depend ? 



PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADF. 305 

55. At what rate does sound travel through the air ? 
Through water? 

56. If the velocity of sound is 1090 ft. per second and a 
sounding body makes 500 vibrations in a second, what is 
the wave length ? 

57. What are echoes ? 

58. An echo is heard from the side of a building in 6 
seconds. How far away is the building ? 

59. How does a musical sound differ from noise P 

60. What is a chord ? A discord ? 

61. How is the sound of the human voice produced? 

62. How do we hear f 

63. How many vibrations must there be in one second 
that sound may be audible ? 

64. At how many vibrations in a second does sound cease 
to be audible ? 

65. What is an octave ? 

66. Upon what does pitch depend? 

67. Why is sound conveyed more readily by a speaking- 
tube than without ? 

68. How does sound pass through a solid ? 

69. To what is reinforcement or resonance of sound due ? 

70. What is a fundamental tone ? What are overtones 
or harmonics ? 

LIGHT. 

71. What is a luminous body ? A transparent body? An 
opaque body ? 

72. How is light propagated ? What is its velocity ? 

73. How does the intensity of light diminish ? 
. 74. What is the law of the reflection of light ? 

75. What difference is there between a real image and a 
virtual image ? 

76. Why are images seen through small apertures in- 
verted ? 



306 PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 

77. Two mirrors are inclined at an angle of 45°; how 
many images of the objects placed between them are seen ? 

78. What is the law of refraction ? 

79. What is the solar spectrum ? How obtained ? 

80. What are Fraunhofer's lines ? 

81. What is the difference between continuous spectra 
and discontinuous spectra? 

82. Of what is "white" light composed ? 

83. What are lenses ? Name the different kinds ? 

84. How can you find the focal length of a converging 
lens ? 

85. What will happen to parallel rays passing through a 
double-convex lens ? 

86. Explain spherical aberration and state how this is 
overcome. 

87. Explain chromatic aberration and state how this is 
overcome. 

88. What kind of a lens does the eye contain ? 

89. What is the difference between a single and a com- 
pound microscope? 

90. What effect has a double-concave lens upon parallel 
rays? 

91. Where will an object seen in a mirror appear to be, 
in relation to the reflecting surface ? Is the object itself 
seen in using a mirror ? 

92. What causes double refraction ? 

93. What is the difference in color resulting from the 
mixture of the spectral colors yellow and blue, and the 
mixture of yellow and blue pigments ? 

94. To what are the colors seen in a soap bubble or the 
colors seen when a drop of oil is put upon water due ? 

HEAT. 

95. Define heat. 

96. How does heat affect the size of a body ? 



PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 307 

97. What is meant by the conductivity of a body? 

98. Why does water boil more quickly in a kettle cov- 
ered with soot than in one that is new and bright? 

99. How do liquids and gases conduct heat ? 

100. What is evaporation ? Condensation ? 

101. State the conditions which affect the rapidity of 
evaporation. 

102. How are bodies heated by convection ? 

103. When water is placed in a vessel over a fire why 
does the water rise from the bottom continually ? 

104. What is a thermometer ? On what principle does 
it act ? 

105. What are the fixed points on a thermometer ? 

106. Change — 36° Centigrade to Fahrenheit reading, 
and — 36° F. to Centigrade reading. 

107. How does luminous heat differ from obscure heat ? 

108. State the general laws of heat. 

109. What is a diathermanous body? 

110. What effect has pressure on the boiling-point ? 

111. What is the specific heat of a substance ? 

112. Define latent heat. 

113. What is the boiling-point of water ? What is the 
freezing-point ? 

114. What substances expand in solidifying ? 

115. Explain what is meant by the maximum density of 
water, and state at what temperature water reaches its 
maximum density. 

116. W T hy does water when frozen occupy more space 
than when in a fluid state? 

117. What is the principle on which freezing-mixtures 
are based ? 

118. For what purpose is the hygrometer used ? 

119. What is the mechanical equivalent of heat on the 
Fahrenheit scale? The Centigrade scale ? 

120. An iron ball weighing 2 lbs. falls through 4170 



308 PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 

feet; if all the heat generated be absorbed by the ball, find 
the temperature when its fall is arrested, the specific heat 
of iron being .114. 

ELECTEICITY. 

121. State the first law of magnetism. 

122. Define the magnetic field. 

123. Explain why a bar of steel or iron when magnetized 
becomes slightly longer and slightly narrower. 

124. What is an astatic needle ? 

125. What is a voltaic cell ? 

126. What is a conductor ? What a non-conductor? 

127. In a voltaic cell which plate is the negative pole, 
and which the positive pole ? 

128. What is meant by the polarization of a cell ? 

129. Describe Bunsen's cell ; DanielPs cell. 

130. Define external and internal resistance. 

131. What is a voltaic battery ? 

132. Define the terms ohm, volt, ampere. 

133. State Ohm's law. 

E 

134. Explain the formula C = -^. 

K 

135. What is a shunt ? What is the law of the division 
of the current ? 

136. What is the resistance in a circuit when an E.F.M. 
of 8 volts gives a current of 1.6 amperes ? 

137. Five cells, each having an E.M.F. of 1.2 volts, an 
internal resistance of 1.5 ohms, an external resistance of 
6.5 ohms are arranged in series. Find the strength of the 
current. 

138. A magnetic needle is suspended by a silk thread, and 
a wire conveying a current of electricity is placed parallel 
to the needle and alongside it. What is the effect ? 

139. What is a galvanometer ? 

140. What is a relay battery? 



PHYSICS FOR FIX ST GRADE. 309 

141. What is an electromagnet ? 

112. State the conditions under which two parallel wires 
conveying a current of electricity will repel each other. 

113. What is the law of the production of a current by 
moving a magnet in and out of a helix ? 

114. How can you determine which is the north end of 
the core of a helix ? 

145. What is electrolysis ? 

146. What is an induction-coil ? 

147. In what manner are arc lights and incandescent 
lights coupled or connected with a dynamo ? 

148. What is an electroscope ? 

149. In what ways can electricity be developed ? 

150. Describe a Leyden jar. 

151. How is thermo-electricity produced ? 

152. What is a secondary or storage battery, and on what 
principle does it work ? 



310 PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 






ANSWERS TO PHYSICS. FIRST GRADE. 

1. Of molecules. 

2. Molecules are the smallest particles of matter that can exist 
independently. An atom is the smallest division of matter and 
cannot exist independently. 

3. That cause which alters or tends to alter either the direction 
of the motion of a body or the amount of that motion. 

Molar forces are those which act between masses of matter at 
sensible distances from one another. Molecular forces, those 
which act between molecules at insensible distances from one an- 
other. Atomic forces, those which act between the atoms com- 
posing a molecule. 

4. In solids the molecules are closely crowded together; in liq- 
uids they move freely among one another, while in gases they are 
far apart and repel one another. 

5. He estimated that the average distance between the centres 
of two adjacent molecules of a liquid or a solid is less than the 
trrtoooo a » d greater than „*_** of a centimetre. 

6. Cohesion is contact existing between molecules of the same 
kind. Adhesion is contact existing between molecules which are 
unlike. 

7. Hardness is a state of molecular arrangement which resists 
intrusion. Ductility is a molecular arrangement which allows a 
body to be drawn out to great lengths, as a wire of platinum. 
Malleability is such a molecular arrangement as permits a body to 
be hammered out into a sheet, as gold leaf. Elasticity is a molec- 
ular arrangement which causes a body to return to its original 
position on being displaced. 

8. Cohesive force tends to arrange molecules in regular shapes. 

9. A body is compressible when it can be reduced in size by 
pressure. Gases are most compressible. 

10. Adhesion. 

11. Capillarity is the tendency which liquids have to rise in 
small tubes, or at the sides of vessels. TI e sponge is a good illus- 
tration. 

12. The molecules which constitute the surface layer of a liquid, 
unlike the molecules in the body of the liquid which are attracted 
in all directions, are attracted only downwards and side wise.' The 
effect is that the surface layer of molecules, because of this attrac- 



PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 311 

tion, exerts a tension like a stretched membrane, and also exerts a 
pressure on the liquid below. 

13. It can. 

14. Osmosis is the passage of liquids and gases through mem- 
branes. Illustration : The oxygen of the air reaching the blood 
by passing through the delicate walls of the lungs and the small 
blood-vessels. 

15. Heat increases the repellent force between the molecules ; 
the adhesion of the gas to the liquid is thus overcome. 

16. As the molecules repel one another they occupy more space. 

17. An increase of surface increases the adhesive force. 

18. When the hand is dipped in water it comes out wet. A body 
immersed in any substance, properly a liquid, will bring away 
part of the liquid when withdrawn. ' ^ 

19. The attraction existing between bodies is called gravity. 
Weight is the attraction of bodies toward the earth. 

20. The distance from the centre is doubled. The square of 
this distance in units is 4. As the weight decreases as the square 
of the distance, the body will weigh \ of 2000 pounds or 500. 

21. 7 x_2 - 1 = 13. 13 x 16 ft. = 208 ft, in the 7th second. 

22. 4/25": V 7 36 :: 5 :6. 

23. The centre of gravity is the point about which all the parts 
of a body are balanced. It may be without the body. 

24. A body at rest is in equilibrium. Stable equilibrium is 
such a state of the body that on being slightly disturbed it returns 
to its position of rest again. When the body seeks a new position 
of rest on being disturbed, it is said to be in unstable equilibrium. 

25. Pressure on liquids is commuuicated equally in all direc- 
tions. 

26. Water always rises to its level. 

27. The weight of a body compared with the weight of an equal 
bulk of another body taken as a standard. 

28. 2£ lbs. =40 oz. x .88 = 35.2 oz. weight of a quart of pe- 
troleum. 50 lbs. = 800 oz. -f- 35.2 = 22.72 + no. of quarts = 
5.68 gal. 

29. The pressure of the atmosphere will raise mercury 30 
inches in a glass tube. It also causes water to rise in pumps. 
About 15 lbs. to the square inch. 

30. An air-pump is an instrument for removing the air from a 
closed vessel. It is not possible to obtain a perfect vacuum with 
this machine. 

31. Air is condensed in an air-gun. When the pressure is re- 
moved the expansion of the air expels the bullet with great force. 

32. The barometer. 

33. It does. By the different heights to which the mercury in 
a barometer rises. 



312 PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 

34. 30 in. : 26.5 : : 14.7 lbs. : x. Ans. 12.98 lbs. 

35. As the volume of gas inversely proportional to the pressure 
exerted upon it, we have 1 : 2 : : (£) : 1. Ans. One half a cubic ft. 

36. The inability of a body, either at rest or in motion, to 
change its state is called inertia. 

37. Motion is continuous change in the position of a body. 

38. Work is the overcoming of resistance of any kind. 

39. A foot pound is the work done by the expenditure of a 
force that will raise one pound one foot high. 

40. This unit is used to estimate the work done by the action 
of a force on a body. 

41. Energy is the ability of matter to do work by virtue of 
work having previously been done upon it. 

42. Kinetic energy is the ability to do work due to the motion 
of a body. Potential energy is the ability to do work due to the 
position of a body. 

._ _, . iWV 2 __ i(41) x 26 2 ,_. . 

43. Formula g0 = K.E. ' = 433 T V 

44. Action is equal to reaction, but opposite in direction. 

45. There are three kinds of levers ; in the first kind, the ful- 
crum is between the power and the weight ; in the second, the 
weight is between the power and the fulcrum ; in the third, the 
power is between the weight and the fulcrum. 

46. W in lbs. x Wd in in. +- Yd in in. = P in lbs. 
300 x 20 -f- 60 = 100. 

47. The principle of the lever is involved in each. 

48. 4000 "W in lbs. -*■ 8 no. of parts of the cord supporting the 
W = 500 P in lbs. 

49. The property of vibration. 

50. Vibration is motion back and forth. Amplitude is the dis- 
tance a body swings in vibrating from the farthest point on one 
side of its position of rest to the farthest point on the other side. 

51. A transverse vibration is one in which the vibrating body 
moves at right angles to the direction of the wave, while a longi- 
tudinal vibration is one in which the vibrating body moves par- 
allel to the direction of the wave. 

52. The nodes are the parts that have the least motion ; the 
ventral segments are the vibrating parts between the nodes. 

53. The intensity of sound decreases as the square of the dis- 
tance increases. 

54. The intensity of sound depends upon the amplitude of the 
vibrations. 

55. The velocity of sound in air, at 32° Fahrenheit, is 1090 feet 
per second ; in water, 4708 feet per second. 

56. 1090 -f- 500 = 2^ feet wave length. 



PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 313 

57. Echoes are sound waves which after reflection arc audible. 

58. \ of 6 sec. = 3 sec. time it takes the sound to travel one 
way. 1090 feet velocity of sound x 3 = 3270 feet distance of 
building. 

59. Musical sounds are produced by vibrations at regular inter- 
vals. If the vibrations are irregular, the result is simply noise. 

60. A harmonious combination of two or more notes is a 
chord. When the notes are not harmonious a discord occurs. 

61. The sound of the human voice is produced by the vibra- 
tion of the vocal chords. 

62. The vibrations of the air beat against the tympanum of the 
ear. These vibrations are communicated to the brain. The 
comprehension of these vibrations by the brain is called hearing. 

63. At least 16 vibrations per second. 

64. When the vibrations are more than 38,000 per second. 

65. An octave comprises the sounds produced by vibrations be- 
tween a given rate and a rate twice as rapid. 

66. Upon the rapidity of the vibrations. 

67. A speaking-tube prevents the vibrations from spreading in 
all directions. Their force is thus expended in a forward move- 
ment. 

68. Sound is conveyed through a solid by the vibration of the 
molecules of the solid. 

69. Reinforcement or resonance is a strengthening of sound 
due to the meeting of two series of sound waves under such con- 
ditions that the condensations of one series coincide with the 
condensations of the other series, and the rarefactions of one 
with the rarefactions of the other series. 

70. The fundamental tone of a vibrating body is the lowest 
tone that can be made by it without change of length or tension. 
Overtones or harmonics are the tones higher than the funda- 
mental when a sounding body vibrates in two or more ventral 
segments. 

71. A body which emits light. A body which allows light to 
pass through it easily. A body which does not allow light to 
pass through it. 

72. Light is propagated in straight lines, radiating in all di- 
rections from the luminous body. About 186,000 miles per second. 

73. The intensity of light diminishes as the square of the dis- 
tance increases. 

74. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. 

75. A real image is one that can be thrown upon a screen, 
while a virtual image is one that appears behind a reflecting sur- 
face, as a mirror, and cannot be thrown upon a screen. 

76. The rays from the object in order to reach the screen be- 



3 14 PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 

yond the small aperture pass through the small aperture and 
must there cross, thus producing the inverted image. 

77. 360° -r- 45° = 8. 8—1 = 7 no. of images seen. 

78. When a ray of light passes from a rarer to a denser medium, 
it is bent toward a perpendicular drawn to the surface of the 
denser medium. The opposite occurs when a ray passes from a 
denser to a rarer medium. 

79. A solar spectrum exhibits the colors of which light is com- 
posed. It is obtained by passing light through a prism. 

80. If a pure spectrum is examined it will be found to be 
crossed by a number of parallel dark lines. These were first 
counted by Fraunhofer, and the more marked lines were desig- 
nated by the letters A, B, C, I), E, F, G, H. Spectrum analysis 
has grown out of the discovery of these lines. 

81. Continuous spectra are those which are not crossed by 
dark lines, as the spectrum from a candle. Spectra which con- 
sist simply of bright lines, as the yellow line from sodium, are 
discontinuous or Bright Line spectra. 

82. "White light" is a union of all the colors of the spectrum. 

83. Transparent bodies so formed as to change the direction of 
rays passing through them. The principal forms are convex, 
concave, double-convex, double- concave, plano-convex, plano- 
concave, concavo-convex, and meniscus. 

84. Hold the lens in the direct rays of the sun and let the 
focus fall upon a piece of paper. Move the paper till the spot of 
light upon it is as small as it can be made. Then measure the 
distance from the paper to the lens, which will be the focal 
length of the lens. 

85. They will converge. 

86. The rays falling upon the margin of convex lenses are 
refracted more than those falling upon the middle of the lens, 
and come to a focus nearer the lens than the rays falling upon 
the middle. This indistinctness of focus is called spherical aber- 
ration It is overcome by an annular screen called a diaphragm, 
which cuts off the marginal rays. 

87. As white-light is separated into the colors of the spectrum 
when refracted, owing to the fact that the violet rays are more 
refrangible than the red rays, the violet rays come to a focus 
nearer the lens than the red rays, which produces fringes of color 
on objects seen through the lens. It is overcome by combining a 
convex lens of crown glass with a plano-convex of flint glass. 
These having different degrees of refractive power, the dispersion 
of one is neutralized by that of the other. Such a combination 
is said to be achromatic. 

88. The eye contains a modified form of the double-convex 
lens. 

89. In a simple microscope a single lens is used, and the object 



PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 3 I 5 

is seen directly. In a compound microscope a combination of 
lenses is used, and only the image of the object is seen. 

90. It causes them to diverge. 

91. As far behind the mirror as the object really is in front of 
it. The object itself is seen, the rays being simply reflected. 

92. In certain substances a ray of light is divided into two 
rays, both of which are polarized. This causes double refraction. 
Iceland spar has thus the property of dividing rays of light. 

93. If the spectral colors yellow and blue are mixed the prod- 
uct is white. If yellow and blue pigments are mixed the product 
is green. 

94. To the interference of light due to the thin films of the 
refracting substance. 

95. Heat is a form of energy. It can be transferred from one 
mass of matter to another, or it can be transferred into other 
forms of energy. 

96. Heat causes bodies to expand. 

97. Conductivity refers to the power a body has to transmit 
heat. 

98. The soot absorbs heat better, while the bright metal reflects 
the heat. 

99. Liquids and gases convey heat by the actual movement of 
their molecules. 

100. Evaporation is the changing of a liquid into a gas. Con- 
densation is the opposite. 

101. Rapidity of evaporation is affected by the extent of sur- 
face exposed, by the temperature, by the amount of moisture in 
the atmosphere, and by atmospheric pressure. 

102. The molecules being heated rise, those colder taking their 
place, which in turn rise as they become heated. 

103. As the molecules at the bottom become heated they 
expand, thus becoming lighter. They are then forced up, colder 
molecules taking their place. 

104. A thermometer is an instrument for measuring heat. On 
the principle that heat expands mercury in far greater degree 
than it does glass. 

105. The point at which water freezes and the point at which 
distilled water boils. 

106. 180° F. = 100° C. Therefore |° F. = 1° C. 

- 36° C. x | + 32° = — 32.8° F. 

- 36° F. is 68° below the freezing point. 68° x f = — 37|° C. 

107. Luminous heat is radiated from a luminous body. Ob- 
scure heat from a non-luminous body. 

108. Heat is radiated in straight lines in every direction from a 
body and decreases in intensity as the square of the distance in- 
creases. 



3l6 PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 

109. A body allowing heat to pass through it readily is called 
diathermanous. 

110. Pressure raises the boiling-point. 

111. The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat re- 
quired to warm it one degree as compared with the amount re- 
quired to warm an equal weight of water one degree. 

112. Latent heat is the amount of heat which is expended in 
changing the condition of a body without changing its tempera- 
ture. 

113. That point when steam is rapidly formed in the body of 
the liquid. That point when the molecules of water arrange 
themselves in crystals and solidify. 

114. Water, antimony, bismuth, cast-iron. 

115. When the molecules of water are closest together, that is, 
when a given amount of water occupies the least possible space. 
Water reaches its maximum density at 39.2° Fahr. 

116. Since water reaches its maximum density at 39.2° Fahr. 
and does not freeze till it reaches 32° Fahr., it must occupy more 
space. 

117. When a substance melts it takes heat from surrounding 
substances. 

118. A hygrometer is used to measure the amount of moisture 
in the air. 

119. 772 foot pounds is called the mechanical equivalent of 
heat, Fahrenheit scale, f of 772 lbs. = 1390 foot pounds, Centi- 
grade scale. 

120. The ball does 4170 x 2 = 8340 foot pounds of work, or 
work that would raise 1 lb. of water |||^ Cen. degrees of tem- 
perature, = 6°. The ball would be heated 6 ° x -— = 56.6° Cen. 
r .114 

121. Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each 
other. 

122. The space through which the attractive influence of a 
magnet extends is the magnetic field. 

123. It is due to the fact that the particles of the bar set them- 
selves in their longest direction. A faint click is heard at the in- 
stant of magnetization and demagnetization, and if the process is 
continued rapidly heat is produced in the bar. 

124. An astatic needle consists of two magnetic needles so ar- 
ranged that the magnetism of the earth has no directive influence 
upon them. 

125. A voltaic cell consists of two plates immersed in a liquid 
which will act chemically on one of them. 

126. Iron will convey an electric current, and is called a con- 
ductor; glass will not convey an electric current, and is called a 
non-conductor. 






PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 2> l 7 

1-27. The plate on which the liquid acts is positive; the other 
plate is the negative. The end of the wire connected with the 
negative plate is the positive pole, and the end connected with the 
positive plate is the negative pole. When the plates are copper 
and zinc, the copper plate is negative, and the end of the wire 
running from it is positive. The opposite is true of the zinc 
plate. 

128. The polarization of a cell is any action tending to set up a 
current in an opposite direction to the current of the cell. 

129. Bunsen's cell consists of a carbon and a zinc plate. The 
former is immersed in strong nitric acid, the latter in dilute sul- 
phuric acid. A Daniell's cell consists of a copper plate immersed 
in blue vitriol, and a rod of zinc immersed in dilute sulphuric 
acid. The two liquids are separated by a porous earthenware 
cup. 

130. External resistance is the opposition a current of electric- 
ity meets in the conductor outside the battery. Internal resist- 
ance is the opposition the current meets in the exciting fluid of 
the battery. 

131. A number of cells joined together constitute a battery. 

132. An ohm is the unit of measurement of resistance. A volt 
is the unit of electromotive force. An ampere is the unit of 
measurement of the strength of the current. 

133. The strength of the current equals the electromotive force 

■p 

divided by the resistance; or C = — . 

K 

134. E represents the electromotive force in volts, R the re- 
sistance in ohms (R = R external resistance and r the internal 
resistance), and C the current in amperes. If a cell has E.M.F. 
of 2 volts and there is a resistance of i ohm in the cell, and 1-J- 

E 2 

ohms in the wire, the current will be, C = = = — = 1 

R + r 1£ + i 

ampere. 

135. When a current flowing through a wire is divided into two 
branches and partly flows by one branch and partly by the other 
— the branches uuiting again in one wire — either branch is a 
shunt to the other. The currents through the shunts are inversely 
proportional to their resistances. 

136. . _. E „ E _. . „ , 8 volts 
As C = , R +r =— . Therefore R + r — — - 

R + r C 1.6 amperes 

= |£ = 5 ohms. 

137. 1.2 volts, E.M.F. of one cell, x 5 No. of cells = 6 volts 

1.5 ohms, resistance in one cell x 5 = 7.5 ohms = r 

E 6 volts 6 3 

C = = = — = - = - amperes. 

R + r 7.5 ohms + 6.5 ohms 14 7 



3l8 PHYSICS FOR FIRST GRADE. 

138. If the current were strong, it would tend to make the 
needle dip. 

139. An instrument for detecting or measuring an electric cur- 
rent is called a galvanometer. 

140. An extra battery brought into use on telegraph wires to 
work the sounder at a local office. 

141. A bar of soft iron placed within a coil of wire through 
which a current is passing is an electromagnet. 

142. When two currents of electricity move through them in 
opposite directions. 

143. An increase in the number of lines of force passing 
through a helix induces a current in the wire flowing in opposite 
direction to the hands of a watch. A decrease in the number of 
lines of force induces a current flowing in the same direction as 
the hands of a watch. 

144. In a right-hand helix, i.e., one whose turns are in the same 
direction as those of a right-hand screw, the north pole of the 
core is at the end where the current leaves the helix. 

145. The separation of water into oxygen and hydrogen or other 
substances in solution into their elements or parts by means of a 
current of electricity is called electrolysis. 

146. An induction coil consists of a helix of coarse wire coiled 
a few times around a bundle of iron wires. This constitutes the 
primary coil. Outside the primary coil is a helix consisting of a 
great number of turns of fine wire. By means of a spring a cur- 
rent is made and broken in the primary coils, which induces a 
current of high tension in the outer helix or secondary coil. 

147. Arc lamps are connected in series Incandescent lamps 
are usually connected parallel. 

148. An electroscope is an instrument for detecting frictional 
electricity. 

149. Electricity can be developed by friction, by magnetism, by 
heat, and by chemical action. 

150. A Leyden jar is a wide-mouthed vessel of glass coated 
within and without, nearly to the top, with tin-foil. It is closed 
with a stopper through which passes a brass rod ending outside 
in a ball, and connected with the tin-foil inside. It is an instru- 
ment for accumulating by induction charges of electricity. 

151. If two metals are heated at their point of union, a current 
is produced called a thermo-electric current. 

152. It is a battery which gives out a current of electricity due 
to chemical change of its constituents produced by the current of 
electricity which charges it. The energy of the charging current, 
by separating the constituents of the battery chemically, is con- 
verted into potential energy. When the circuit of the storage 
battery is closed the potential chemical energy is reconverted by 
chemical change again into the energy of an electric current. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 319 



CHAPTER XIII. 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

ffov ffiivst CKra&e. 

THE EAKTH AS A PLANET. 

1. What is the shape of the earth, and in how man} 
ways has this been proved? 

2. What is the curvature of the earth to the mile? 

3. Define the terms axis, north pole, and south pole. 

4. What is rotation, and what does it cause? 

5. What is the rate of rotation at the equator? At 
the poles? At intermediate places? 

6. What is the earth's motion of revolution? What is 
the direction of the earth's rotation and revolution, look- 
ing down upon these motions from the northern point of 
the heavens? 

7. What is the orbit of the earth? Its shape? Draw it. 

8. What is the earth's mean distance from the sun? 

9. What is the inclination of the earth's axis? Ex- 
plain how this and the earth's revolution cause the 
change of seasons. 

10. Draw a diagram to illustrate the direction of the 
earth's axis in relation to the sun in summer and in 
winter. 

11. What are the equinoxes and solstices, and at what 
times do they occur? 

12. What would be the effect if the earth's axis were 
perpendicular to the plane of its orbit? 

13. What determines the tropics? What the polar 



320 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 

circles? Draw a circle, and upon this lines to represent 
the equator, tropics, polar circles, and the poles, and 
write the number of degrees between each. 

14. What is longitude? Define prime meridian. What 
meridian has lately been generally adopted by the world 
as the prime meridian? 

15. Show the relation that time bears to longitude. 

16. What is latitude? Show the relation existing be- 
tween the latitude of any place and the zenith, north star, 
and horizon. 

17. What is meant by "low latitudes"? By "high 
latitudes" ? 

18. How do a degree in longitude in India and one in 
Sweden compare in length, and what inference can be 
made from the comparison? 

19. Give the length of the earth's mean equatorial di- 
ameter. How does the polar diameter differ from this? 

20. In surveying for maps what is meant by triangula- 
lion ? 

THE ATMOSPHEKE. 

21. What is meant by the term atmosphere ? Of what 
is air composed. 

22. Where is ozone most abundant, and of what value 
is it? 

23. What purpose does carbonic acid gas in the air 
serve ? 

24. What is water- vapor? Whence is it derived? Ex- 
plain why it floats in air. 

25. What fills space beyond the atmosphere? 

26. What change do we find in the air in ascending? 

27. What is the pressure of the air to the square inch? 
By what instrument measured? At what height does the 
mercury usually stand at the sea-level? 

28. Does it ever vary at the sea-level? Should it rise 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 321 

at the sea-level, in what condition would the atmosphere 
be? Should it fall, what? 

29. What do the terms high-pressure and low-pressure 
mean ? 

30. State the two causes of variations of pressure? 
What are isobaric lines? 

31. How is the temperature of the air determined? 
At what temperature does water freeze? At what tem- 
perature does it boil? What are isothermal lines? 

32. How is the air heated? Compare the temperature 
of winter in Quebec and in Reykjavik. Their tempera- 
ture in summer. What causes the difference? 

33. Explain the effects which latitude, the distribution 
of sea and land, the height above the sea, have on temper- 
ature. 

34. What is evaporation? When is the air said to be 
saturated? 

35. Explain the effects which wind and heat have upon 
evaporation, when the air contains but little water- vapor. 
When a great deal. 

36. What effect has the presence of water-vapor in the 
air upon the temperature of the earth? 

37. What is meant by condensation? 

38. What is dew? Explain the formation of dew. 

39. What effect has a cloudy night upon the forming 
of dew? Why? What is meant by the dew-point? 

40. What is frost? How is mist or fog formed? 

41. Explain the origin of the fog often seen rising after 
sunset from the surface of a river. 

42. Explain the formation of clouds. In what ways 
do clouds disappear from the sky? 

43. Why do clouds often seem to remain on a moun- 
tain top? Name four varieties of cloud. 

44. Explain the formation and fall of rain. 



322 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 

45. How is the rainfall measured? Is it greater over 
the land or the sea? 

46. Why is the rainfall greatest between the tropics? 

47. Account for the lack of rainfall in Peru. In North- 
ern Africa and Arabia. 

48. How does rain purify the air? 

49. How is snow formed? Describe a snow-flake. 
Why does snow appear white? 

50. How is snow valuable to vegetation? 

51. What is sleet? What hail? Explain how ice is 
formed. 

52. What is the direction of the movements of air from 
areas of high-pressure to areas of low-pressure? What 
causes wind? 

53. Explain the nature and origin of sea and land 
breezes. Of breezes up the valleys by day and down by 
night. 

54. Where is the Belt of Equatorial Calms, and why is 
it so called? 

55. Explain the cause and direction of the trade- winds. 
What are the calms of Cancer and Capricorn. 

56. What are the monsoons? What is the sirocco? 
the solano ? the simoom ? What the Harmattan ? Of 
what office are the winds? 

THE CIRCULATION OF WATER ON THE LAND. 

57. What becomes of the rain and snow which fall up- 
on the earth? 

58. What are springs, and how formed? 

59. How do sand and clay differ in regard to the pas- 
sage of water through them? 

60. Where have "Artesian wells" been sunk? Ac- 
count for their flow of water. 

61. What difference is there between the purity of rain 
water and of spring water? 






PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 3 2 3 

62. Whence does rain water derive the carbonic acid 
which it carries below ground? 

63. Explain what is meant when we say water is hard 
or soft 

64. Wherein do mineral springs differ from ordinary 
springs? What are brine springs? 

65. Explain the action of rain-water in limestone 
countries. 

66. What is the cause of underground tunnels and 
caverns? What are stalactites f Stalagmites? 

67. How are streams formed? Why do they flow? 
What causes their winding courses? 

68. In speaking of the banks of rivers, why is it neces- 
sary to use the terms right and left bank? 

69. What is a water-shed ? 

70. Why are most rivers low in summer? Why are the 
Ehine and the Eh one highest at this time? Explain the 
annual rise of the Nile. 

71. What are lakes? What are lagoons? 

72. What is thought to be the origin of inland seas? 

73. How does the level of the Caspian Sea compare with 
that of the Black Sea? How the level of the Dead Sea 
with tfyat of the Mediterranean ? 

74. What is meant by the chemical and mechanical 
action of rain? Define erosion. What is meant by 
detritus? 

75. How have river gorges and ravines been formed? 
What are pot-holes? What is a canon? 

76. Explain the origin of flat terraces bordering a river: 

77. Why are many lakes growing smaller? 

78. Describe a delta and account for its formation at 
the mou+h of a river. 

79. Explain the action of frost in promoting the crum- 
bling of rocks. 



324 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 

80. What is meant by the snow-line? Compare it& 
height at the equator and in the polar regions? 

81. What are avalanches? How are glaciers formed? 
What causes them to move? 

82. What are moraines? Explain the terms lateral, 
medial, and terminal. What becomes of the glacier as it 
descends into the valley? 

THE SEA. 

83. What is meant by the sea? What are the propor- 
tions of land and water on the earth's surface? On which 
side of the equator does most of the sea lie? 

84. What is meant by the great sea-basins? 

85. How would you define an ocean? Which ocean has 
the greatest river drainage? 

86. What is the cause of the sea's saltness? Name two 
other important ingredients found in sea- water. 

87. How is information regarding the sea-bottom ob- 
tained ? 

88. What are coral reefs and coral islands, and how are 
they formed? 

89. What is protoplasm? 

90. How does the temperature at the surface of the 
sea compare with that towards the deep bottoms? 

91. What are icebergs, and how are they formed? What 
is an ice-floe? What an ice-foot? What is ground-ice? 

92. What are tides? Explain the terms ebb and flood 
tides, high and low water. How often does the tide rise 
and fall? What is the difference in the time of high or 
low water on successive days? 

93. What are spring-tides? What neap-tides? 

94. Explain why the tide rises and falls. Compare the 
relative attraction of the sun and the moon upon the sea. 
Draw a diagram illustrating spring-tides and showing the 
relative positions of sun and moon. Illustrate also neap- 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 325 

tides and the relative positions of sun and moon. Give 
names to the different positions of the moon in your 
diagram. 

95. How much higher is the water at high than low 
tide in the middle of the Pacific? In the Atlantic? 

96. Account for the high tides in the Bay of Fundy 
and the Bristol Channel. 

97. What causes whirlpools? 

98. Where is the famous Maelstrom situated? 

99. How are waves formed? What is meant on the 
coast by the ground-swell? 

100. What are ocean currents? What causes them? 

101. Describe the equatorial current. The Gulf Stream. 
The Brazilian current. The Japan current. The Lab- 
rador current. 

102. What effects have these currents upon climate? 

103. What is the Sargasso Sea ? 

THE LAND. 

104. What is a continent? What is meant by the axis 
of a continent? 

105. What is a mountain range? A mountain chain or 
system? 

106. What is soil. Name several different kinds of 
rocks. 

107o What is true of the temperature of the earth as 
we go downward from the surface? What are geysers? 

108. What is the theory regarding the interior of the 
earth? Show how the statement that the earth's interior 
is a " molten mass" gives a false idea. 

109.- What are volcanoes? What is the crater? 

110. Give a short account of the famous eruption of 
Vesuvius in the year 79. 

111. Name the substances which volcanoes emit. 

112. State about the number of active volcanoes on the 



326 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 

globe? What can you say about the distribution of vol- 
canoes. 

113. What are earthquakes? What do you know of 
the character of the great earthquake at Lisbon in 1775? 
Of the Calabrian earthquake a few years later? 

114. How has it been calculated from what depths 
earthquakes arise? 

115. What is meant by an upheaval? By subsidence? 

116. Define a fringing reef. A barrier reef. An atoll. 

117. What is climate? What conditions determine the 
climate of any region? 

118. What is meant by the flora and fauna of any 
region ? 

119. What great peculiarity does the fauna of Australia 
show? 

120. What is meant by primary races? By secondary? 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 327 



ANSWERS TO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, FIRST GRADE. 

1. It is that of a sphere slightly flattened at the poles. Proofs: (1) it 
has been circumnavigated; (2) when sailing out to sea, the topmasts 
of ships disappear last; (3) sunrise takes place later as we travel 
west, and earlier as we travel east; (4) the earth's shadow on the 
moon is always circular; (5) from any elevation the horizon is equally 
depressed. 

2. About 8 inches to the mile. 

3. The axis is the line upon which the earth rotates. The points 
at which the axis reaches the surface are known respectively as the 
north pole and the south pole. 

4. Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis, and causes 
day and night. 

5. At the equator, about 500 yards in a second; at the poles, noth- 
ing; at intermediate places, it varies according to their nearness or 
distance from the poles. 

6. Its movement around the sun. From west to east. 

7. Its path around the sun. It is an ellipse, differing but little 
from a circle. The eccentricity of the ellipse is -£$. 

8. 92,897,000 miles. 

9. 23 £°. In summer the north pole is turned toward the sun, 
therefore the northern heavens receive a greater amount of heat, 
causing summer ki that hemisphere. In winter the north pole is 
turned from the sun, and the northern hemisphere is largely de- 
prived of the heat of the sun's rays, thus causing winter. In spring 
and fall the pole is turned neither to nor from the sun, every place 
on the earth coming under the influence of the sun's rays. 

10. [Left for student.] 

11. The equinoxes are when the days and nights are equal, and 
occur on March 20th and Sept. 22d. The solstices are when the 
days are at their longest and shortest, and occur about June 21st 
and Dec. 22d. 

12. The days and nights would be equal, and there would be no 
change of seasons. 

13. The tropics, 23i° from the equator, mark the highest latitude 
which receives the vertical rays of the sun. The polar circles are 
23^° from the poles. The Arctic circle marks the limit of illumina- 
tion when the sun is vertical at the Tropic of Capricorn, and the An- 
tarctic circle the limit of illumination when the sun is vertical at 
the Tropic of Cancer. 

14. Longitude is distance on the earth's surface from a prime 
meridian, east or west. A prime meridian is one from which Ion- 



328 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 

gitude is reckoned. The meridian passing through the National 
Observatory at Greenwich, near London. 

15. Every circle is divided into 360 equal parts or degrees. As it 
takes 24 hours for the earth to rotate through these 360 , in one hour 
it travels through 15°; hence 1° is equal to four minutes of time. 

16. Latitude is distance north or south of the equator. If the 
axis of the earth were prolonged, it would cut the heavens near the 
north star. From the equator to the pole is 90°; the zenith is the 
point directly overhead. From the zenith to the horizon is 90°. If 
one were at the north pole the north star would be in the zenith; as 
one travels southward the north star would leave its place in the 
zenith moving toward the horizon; when one had travelled 90° south- 
ward or to the equator, the north star would move down from the 
zenith 90', and hence would be in the horizon. 

17. Low latitudes are regions or places lying towards the equator. 
High latitudes are places situated near i^e poles. 

18. In Sweden it is about -£ a mile longer than in India, which 
proves the flattening of the globe at the poles. 

19. The equatorial diameter is 7925.65 miles. The polar diameter 
is 26.48 miles less. 

20. First, a base-line a few mile." in length is accurately measured. 
At each end of the line a theodolite is set up and sighted upon some 
object several miles distant. The angles whirl these sight-lines 
make with the base-line are carefully measured, and by a mathe- 
matical calculation the length of the two sight-^^es is found. These 
two lines and the base-line form a triangle, and from this triangle 
a system of triangulation is observed all over the country, and dis 
tances are thus measured. 

21. The whole mass of air surrounding the earth. Four parts of 
nitrogen and one part of oxygen. 

22. Ozone is most abundant in pure country and sea air, and is 
lacking in the air of cities. It unites with noxious gases, thus puri- 
fying the air. 

23. Carbonic-acid gas is taken in by growing plants and converted 
into woody tissue. 

24. Water-vapor is the invisible steam always present in the at- 
mosphere. It is evaporated from every water-surface on the face of 
the globe. Because it is very finely divided. 

25. Ether. 

26. The air gets lighter or thinner as we ascend, and also grows 
colder. 

27. 14f pounds. — Barometer. — About 30 inches. 

28. It does. — The atmosphere would be heavier.— The atmosphere 
would be lighter. 

29. When the mercury rises above the average 30 inches it indi« 
cates high pressure; when it falls below the average it indicates low 
pressure. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 329 

30. Temperature and the amount of water-vapor in the air. — They 
are lines drawn on a chart of the globe connecting the points where 
the atmospheric pressure is equal. 

31. By an instrument called a thermometer. — 32° Fahrenheit. — 
212°. — Lines connecting places on the earth having equal tempera- 
ture. 

32. The sun's rays heat the earth's surface, which radiates its heat 
to the atmosphere. In winter at Quebec the average temperature is 
12"; at Reykjavik, 30 .—The average summer temperature of Que- 
bec is 70 '; that of Reykjavik, 51°.— Canada is chilled by the cold 
land and sea lying to the north and northeast of it, while Iceland is 
warmed by the ocean currents which always sweep by its shores. 

33. The tropics are warmest because they receive the greatest 
amount of the sun's rays. As we pass from the tropics the influ- 
ence of the sun's rays grows less, and the temperature is cooler. 
The sea heats slower than the land and retains its heat longer, and 
because of this changes the temperature of land lying near it; ocean 
currents heat the air above them, and this air blowing upon the land 
also affects temperature. As we ascend, the air falls in temperature 
1° Fahrenheit for every 300 feet; therefore elevated land would nat- 
urally be cooler than low land. 

34. Evaporation is the giving off in an invisible form of vapor 
from water, and when the air can hold no more it is said to be satu- 
rated. 

35. When the air contains but little water- vapor, wind and heat 
very quickly dry up damp places and pools of water; but when the 
air is almost saturated, damp places dry up slower, but even then 
evaporation goes on much more briskly when a fresh wind is blow- 
ing and the sun is shining. 

36. It keeps the earth warmer by night and cooler by day, or 
tends to make the temperature even. 

37. The conversion of vapor back again into the state of water. 

38. Dew is vapor condensed on leaves, plants, stones, or other ob- 
jects. — When the sky is cloudless, radiation goes on rapidly from the 
earth, and the surface of those substances which part with their heat 
first becomes colder than the air, and thus condenses upon their sur- 
faces the vapor from the atmosphere. 

39. On a cloudy night dew does not form at all or only in small 
quantities, because the clouds prevent the earth from radiating its 
heat, and the ground does not, therefore, become cold enough to 
condense upon it the vapor of the air. — The temperature at which 
dew is deposited. It varies with conditions of the atmosphere. 

40. Frost is dew frozen while forming. — When a mass of warm 
and moist air meets colder air, or in any way cools down below the 
dew-point, the excess of vapor, which it can no longer retain, con- 
denses into minute particles, and is made visible in the form of mist 
or fog. 



23^ PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 

41. As radiation goes on, the ground around the water becomes 
colder than the water and the vapor is chilled and condensed into 
hanks or sheets of fog. 

43. Whenever vapor is carried up into the cold upper parts of the 
atmosphere it becomes visible in a form of condensation known as 
clouds. — When clouds come into contact with warmer currents of 
air, their particles are broken up and become invisible by evapora- 
tion. 

43. The wind bears with it warm invisible vapor, which, strik- 
ing the cold mountain top, is chilled and passes into a fine mist. 
This, seen from a distance, takes the shape of a stationary cloud 
capping the summit. — Cirrus or curl-clouds, cumulus, stratus, and 
nimbus. 

44. The little water-particles which compose clouds run together 
as condensation proceeds, and when the drops thus formed become 
too heavy to float in the air they fall as rain. 

45. By an instrument called a rain-gauge. — Over the land. 

46. Because of the enormous amount of evaporation taking place 
there. 

47. The high chain of the Andes takes out the last of the moisture 
which blows from the east across the continent, and the winds that 
descend upon Peru are so dry that rain is almost unknown. In 
Northern Africa and Arabia the soil is dry and sandy, and during 
the day becomes very hot. There is little water to evaporate. The 
hot, dry air ascends, and the moist winds which blow toward the 
desert are heated and driven up in the ascending currents. 

48. It absorbs certain gases and vapors, and gathers up the organic 
particles that float in the air. 

49. Vapor condensed in the air having a temperature below 32° 
Fahr. freezes, thus producing snow. — A snowflake is a group of 
crystals of transparent ice arranged in the form of a star with six 
rays. The minute surfaces of the crystals reflect all the primary 
colors ; from their combination the flake appears white. 

50. Snow being a bad conductor of heat, keeps the soil from part- 
ing with its warmth, thus protecting vegetation from being injured 
by severe cold. 

51. When snow is driven through a warm layer of air it begins to 
melt, and in this half -melted state reaches the ground as sleet. — Hail 
is rain frozen while descending. — When from any cause water is 
cooled down to 32' Fahr., it no longer remains in a liquid form, but 
passes into a solid form known as ice. 

52. Air always flows in spirally from areas of high pressure into 
areas of low pressure. — Owing to the unequal heating of the earth's 
surface by the sun, and the varying amount of water-vapor in the 
air, the pressure of the atmosphere never remains stationary, and 
movements of the air called winds result from these differences of 
pressure. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 33 1 

53. During the day the surface of the land becomes warmer than 
that of the sea, and the air resting above the land becomes hotter 
than that above the sea. This difference of pressure sets in motion 
a light breeze which moves from the sea to the land, and is a sea- 
breeze. When night comes the land cools off quicker than the sea, 
the air over the land is denser, and moves seaward in a land-breeze 
to take the place of the ascending current from the sea.— In the day- 
time the air warmed on the mountain sides ascends, and a breeze 
blows up the valley toward the heights. When night comes the 
cold, heavy air on the mountains flows down as a cool breeze in the 
valleys. 

54. Between the tropics. — Because there are no constant winds 
• there. 

55. When hot air rising from the equatorial belt reaches the high 
part of the atmosphere it divides, one part flowing north and the 
other south 10 the belt of high pressure, where they descend to the 
surface. Here the air divides again, part going toward the poles 
and part toward the equator. As this air passes into regions where 
the speed of the earth's rotation increases, instead of flowing straight 
north and south it is deflected toward the west, becoming on the 
north side of the equator the north-east trade-winds, and on the 
south side the south-east trade-winds.— Beyond the trade-wind 
region, along the belt of high atmospheric pressure, there is a belt of 
calm and variable winds called the Calms of Cancer on the north 
side, and on the south side the Calms of Capricorn. 

56. A name given to any wind of a markedly seasonal character. 
— A hot moist wind raising a haze in the air and producing languid 
sensations is called a sirocco in Italy. In Spain it comes across the 
sea laden with hot dust from the African deserts, and is called a 
solano. The simoom appears in Africa and Arabia, a hot suffocating 
wind, travelling with such violence as to carry clouds of sand for 
many miles. On the coast of Guinea, during the winter months, a 
hot wind called the Harmattan blows from the interior out to sea. — 
The office of the wind is the distribution of temperature and mois- 
ture. 

57. Part of it sinks into the soil, and part flows off and is carried 
to the sea. 

58. Springs are the outflow of water which, sinking into the 
ground, has met an impervious layer of earth, and collecting above 
this has formed a sort of reservoir of which the spring is the outlet. 

59. Water passes more easily through sand than clay, because 
sand is more porous. 

60. On the northern margin of the Desert of Sahara, on the sandy 
tracts between Cairo and Suez, in the north of France, near London, 
and in parts of the United States. Large quantities of water ac- 
cumulate on impervious beds of earth, and being under pressure, 
spurt upward when reached by boring. 

61. Rain-water absorbs but little of the impurities of the air, and 



332 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE 

may be considered nearly pure, while spring water percolating 
through the ground, gathers up large quantities of mineral matter. 

62. From the air. 

63. Hard water contains a large proportion of mineral matter, 
while soft water contains but a small amount. 

64. They contain enough mineral substance to affect the taste of 
the water. — Springs that contain a large proportion of common salt. 

65. Rain-water absorbs carbonic -acid gas, and this gives it a sol- 
vent power upon limestone ; as the rain sinks through the ground, it 
dissolves minute quanties of the rock. 

66. Rain-water in passing through the chinks and joints in lime- 
stone rock dissolves out a portion, and at last forms tunnels and 
chambers underground. — The trickling of rain through limy sub- 
stance causes the lime to dissolve, and form a white film which, if 
undisturbed, lengthens into a stout rod or column. These hanging 
rods are called stalactites. A part of the water drops to the ground 
and forms a solid column called stalagmite. 

67. Owing to the unevenness of the land, the surplus rain runs 
off into hollows, and these hollows or channels which receive and 
conduct the drainage are watercourses or streams. — Because the 
surface is sloping, and in obedience to gravity water seeks the low- 
est level. — Rocks and dense soil make their courses winding. 

68. Because of the winding of the stream. 

69. A line which divides the flow of brooks and rivers on two op- 
posite sides. 

70. Because water evaporates, and there is also less rainfall. — 
They rise in the snow and ice of the Alps, which melt faster in the 
summer. — The Nile owes its annual rise to the heavy rainfall of the 
wet season among the mountains of Abyssinia. 

71. Lakes are hollows that have intercepted drainage, and be- 
come filled with water.— A lagoon is a sheet of water along the 
margin of the land, where the ground is low. 

72. Having no outlet, the only escape of water is by evaporation, 
and the saline matter collects, eventually making the lake salt, when 
it is sometimes called an inland sea. 

73. The Caspian Sea is 84 feet lower than the Black. The Dead 
Sea is 1298 feet lower than the level of the Mediterranean. 

74. Rain, by means of the acids it takes from the air, produces 
chemical action, causing rocks and stones to crumble. The washing 
away of crumbled particles is the mechanical action. Erosion is the 
loosening of the particles of earth or rock. As this debris of land 
and rock is washed away by the rain and brooks, its particles grind- 
ing against each other become still f ifrther reduced in size, and are 
then called detritus. 

75. They have been cut out by running streams of water. — Round 
caldron shaped cavities which have been formed along the walls of 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 333 

ravines by the grinding of loose stones. — A canon is a deep gorge 
or ravine worn between very steep banks by water-courses. 

76. Streams wben greatly swollen overflow tbe flat meadows on 
eitber side, depositing sediment. Eacb overflow adds to tbe beigbt 
of tbe deposits, till at last tbe bigbest tide is not able to overflow 
them. Tbe stream then scours a deeper cbannel, leaving tbese bigh 
deposits as terraces. 

77. Because of the sediment conveyed to them by rivers. 

78. A delta is generally triangular in shape, its apex pointing up 
the river. It is formed by tbe deposit of sediment, where the cur- 
rent is checked by coming in contact with the sea. 

79. Particles of water getting in rock-crevices and freezing ex- 
pand, and thus gradually break up rocks. 

80. The name given to the line below which snow melts, but 
above which more snow falls than the summer months can thaw. — 
Its height at tbe equator is from fifteen to twenty thousand feet 
above the level of the sea, while in the polar regions it comes down 
to the sea level. 

81. Where edges of a snowfield hang over, they break off from 
time to time, and fall with terrific force down into the valley. 
These are called avalanches. — Snow constantly falls above the snow- 
line, and the pressure of the overlying mass forces the air out of the 
underlying portion, causing it to pass into clear blue ice.— Where 
there is a slight inclination, the action of gravity causes the glacier 
to move downward. 

82. The heaps of stone, earth, and gravel whicb the glaciers carry 
along with them are called moraines. When they are on the side 
of the glacier, they are called lateral moraines; wben in tbe center, 
medial; wben at the end where the glacier melts, terminal. — Coming 
in contact with warmer temperature, it melts, forming the source of 
rivers. 

83. The entire body of salt water surrounding the continent.^ 
About one fourth land and three fourths water. — The south side. 

84. The depressed parts of the earth's surface. 

85. An ocean is the largest division of the sea. The Atlantic. 

1 86. Rain-water, because of the carbonic-acid gas it has absorbed, 
dissolves out of the soil saline substances which are carried by rivers 
to the sea. Their continual accumulation has given the sea its salt- 
ness.— Carbonate of lime and silica. 

87. By sounding in deep parts and dredging in shallow parts. 

88. They are submarine banks of a kind of limestone, formed 
entirely by the growth of coral polypes. 

89. It is organic matter wbicb serves tbe simpler forms of marine 
creatures as food. 

90. It is warmer. 

91. Icebergs are floating masses of ice. They break off from 



334 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 

glaciers in the Arctic regions as the glaciers push into the sea. — An 
ice-floe is the freezing of the surface-water of the sea during the 
intense cold of the polar regions. — An ice-foot is a shelf of ice frozen 
to the shore and lifted by the tide from twenty to thirty feet above 
the level of an ice-floe. Ground ice is the freezing of the water 
lying on the sea-bottom. 

92. The rise and fall of the waters of the ocean are called tides. 
The falling of the water is ebb tide, and the rising, flood tide. High- 
water is the highest mark reached by flood tide, and low-water the 
lowest mark to which ebb tide falls. The tide rises for about six 
hours, and falls for the next six hours. About fifty minutes later 
each day. 

93. The highest rise and lowest fall of the tide are spring-tides. 
The least rise and fall are neap-tides. 

94. The attraction of the sun and moon cause two tidal waves, or 
a heaping up of the water, to pass around the earth from east to west 
nearly twelve and one half hours apart. The moon's influence is 
about three times as great as the sun's. 

95. In the middle of the Pacific it is less than a foot. In the 
Atlantic, about three feet. 

96. Both the Bay of Fundy and the Bristol Channel have a broad 
mouth w r hich gradually narrows. This narrowing of the land acts 
like a funnel, forcing the tidal-wave higher and higher as it moves 
up the channel. 

97. The meeting in narrow passages of two opposing currents, or 
the striking of the tide in these passages against sunken rocks, form 
whirlpools. 

98. At the southern end of Lofodden Islands, on the Norwegian 
coast. 

99. Waves are formed by the friction of the wind.— Broad undu- 
lations coming in upon the coast from storm areas, out at sea. 

100. The regular and constant circulation of parts of the sea. 
The main cause is the difference of temperature between the polar 
and tropical regions, which acts directly on the waters, and acts 
indirectly by the winds. The cold and heavier water from the 
polar regions flows south, and displaces the lighter and warmer water 
of the tropical regions. These currents are modified in their natural 
course by the rotation of the earth. 

101. The trade-winds set the surface-water of the sea in motion 
so that it acquires a gradual tendency toward the equator. Unit- 
ing at the equatorial belt, it assumes a westerly direction, crossing 
the Atlantic and Pacific as the equatorial current. Owing to the 
interference of the continents, it separates at Cape St. Roque, the 
larger current sweeping round into the Carribbean Sea and Gulf of 
Mexico, wmence it issues as the Gulf Stream; the smaller current 
turning southward as the Brazilian current.— In the Pacific Ocean 
the equatorial current divides at the Malay Archipelago, one branch 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 335 

turning northward as the Japan current.— The Labrador current is 
a current of cold water descending from Davis Strait, along the 
coast of Labrador. 

102. The country near which the warm currents pass is made 
warmer, while the polar currents make climate colder. 

103. A vast area of comparatively still water in the Atlantic Ocean, 
over the surface of which dense masses of sea-weed grow. 

104. A continent is one of the six great divisions of land. — The 
line from which the ground slopes on either side to the sea. 

105. A connected series of mountains. — Two or more mountain 
ranges running parallel with each other are a mountain chain or 
system. 

106. Soil is the upper layer of earth or mould which furnishes 
nutriment to plants. — Sandstone, shale, slate, limestone, chalk, 
granite. 

107. The temperature increases at an average of 1° Fahr. for every 
sixty feet of descent. Geysers are boiling springs whose waters 
burst out at intervals with great force. 

108. That it is a heated mass of material in a solid state. — The 
statement that it is a " molten mass" conveys no idea of solidity. 

109. Any conical mound or mountain formed of materials which 
have been erupted from beneath the surface. — A basin-shaped open- 
ing at the top. 

110. This eruption buried the cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii, 
and Stabiae. For twelve or fifteen miles around the air was dark 
as midnight, and a thick deposit of fine ashes and stones covered the 
whole district. 

111. Fine dust, ashes, steam, stones, lava, and gases. 

112. About 173. — They are all ranged close to some one of the 
great ocean basins. 

113. Tremblings or concussions of the ground.— The city of 
Lisbon sank, and 60,000 people were destroyed. — A generation later 
the Calabrian earthquake destroyed not less than 40,000. 

114. Kents in buildings show in what direction the shock came. 
By noting where the shock was vertical and where oblique, and 
measuring the angle these two lines make, the depth has been 
calculated. 

115. Any elevation of the ground after an earthquake is called an 
upheaval. Any depression below the previous level, a subsidence. 

116. A fringing reef is a coral formation skirting the margin of 
the land at a distance of one or two miles, with shallow water 
intervening. — A barrier reef is one farther from the shore, having 
deeper water intervening and deeper water outside. — An atoll is a 
ring of coral rising out of the middle of a deep ocean inclosing a 
body of comparatively shallow water. 

117. Climate is the general temperature, moisture, winds, and 



33^ PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY FOR FIRST GRADE. 

other atmospheric conditions which prevail in any place —Distance 
from the equator, distance from the sea, height above the sea, pre- 
vailing winds, and the nature of the soil. 

118. By flora is meant the vegetation, and by fauna, the animals 
of the region. 

119. The fauna of Australia is the most peculiar found anywhere 
on the globe. None of the domestic animals, nor any of the well- 
known beasts of prey, are found there. 

120. The primary races are the Caucasian, the Mongolian, and 
the Negro ; the secondary races are the Malay or Brown race, the 
Australian, and the American or Copper- colored race — these last 
being regarded as modifications of the Mongolian race. 



ENGLISH LITERATURE TOR FIRST GRADE. 337 



CHAPTER XIV. 

ENGLISH LITERATURE, 

jfot JFtrst ©ratre. 

1. Name and describe three English literary produc- 
tions previous to the time of Chaucer. 

2. What influence had Alfred upon literature? 

3. Give a short sketch of the life of Chaucer. 

4. Name his greatest work, and sketch briefly its plan. 

5. What famous Italian poets lived in Chaucer's time? 

6. Who was Sir John Mandeville? 

7. Who was called the Morning Star of the Reforma- 
tion? 

8. Of what benefit was William Caxton to English 
literature ? 

9. What reason is there for associating Wyclif and 
Tyndale? 

10. What can you say of Utopia and its author? 

11. Describe the " Miracle Plays" and the "Morali- 
ties." 

12. Give the points of interest in the life of Spencer 
and name his principal works. 

13. For what are these men noted: Ascham? Sidney? 
Hooker? Raleigh? 

14. Sketch the rise of the drama, bringing it down to 
the time of Shakespeare. 

15. Tell the chief facts in Shakespeare's life. 

16. Name ten of his dramas. 



338 ENGLISH LITERATURE FOR FIRST GRADE. 

17. In what has Shakespeare excelled all other writers? 

18. Name the celebrated contemporaries of Shake- 
speare. 

19. Of whom was it said, " The wisest, brightest, 
meanest of mankind," and who said it? Was it just? 

20. What is meant by the Shakespearean-Bacon contro- 
versy? 

21. What gives Bacon his great place in English litera- 
ture? 

22. What was the chief influence of his works? 

23. Distinguish between the inductive and deductive 
mode of reasoning. 

24. By whom was the Authorized Version of the Bible 
made? At what time? 

25. Give a short account of the translations that pre- 
ceded it. 

26. Name a work by each of the following: Izaak Wal- 
ton, Jeremy Taylor, Samuel Butler. 

27. Give an account of the life and writings of John 
Bunyan. 

28. When was the golden age of English literature? 

29. Into what three periods does the life of Milton 
naturally divide itself? 

30. Name the works he wrote in each period. 

31. When were the theatres closed, and for how long? 

32. When were actresses, movable scenery, and the bal- 
let brought upon the stage? 

33. What was the corrupt drama? 

34. When did Dryden live? Name his chief works. 

35. Name the three unities. 

36. Name four of the corrupt dramatists. 

37. What was the Augustan Age of English literature? 

38. In what fields of investigation were Locke and 
Newton interested? 

39. Who was Dean Swift, and for what noted? 



ENGLISH LITERATURE FOR FIRST GRADE. 339 

40. How is his name coupled with " Stella" and "Va- 
nessa"? 

41. Addison and Steele. Give a short sketch of their 
lives, the papers they established and for which they 
wrote. 

42. What is the acknowledged estimate of Addison's 
style? 

43. Contrast Dr. Johnson and Alexander Pope as to 
their personal appearance and individual traits of charac- 
ter. 

44. Name the principal works of each. 

45. Tabulate the early novelists and their works ac- 
cording to the time each appeared. 

46. Who was James Boswell? 

47. Sketch briefly Goldsmith's life, name his works, 
and give some account of "The Deserted Village." 

48. What is meant by "Grub Street"? 

49. Name three great historians of the 18th century, 
and the important works of each. 

50. Who were the literary impostors? 

51. Name the author of each of the following: Essays 
of Elia; The Task; The Seasons; Elegy in a Country 
Churchyard; The Wealth of Nations; The Bridge of 
Sighs; Aurora Leigh. 

52. Compare Byron and Burns, showing wherein their 
lives were alike and wherein different. 

53. Have you pity or blame for them? 

54. Name the principal works of each. 

55. Who were the so-called "Lake-school poets"? 
Why so called? 

56. Mention an important poem by each. 

57. Who was the "Magician of the North"? 

58. Give an account of his life and name ten of his 
works. 

59. Mention three leading English historians and two 



340 ENGLISH LITERATURE FOR FIRST GRADE. 

American historians of the nineteenth century; also a 
leading work of each. 

60. Mention five modern English novelists, and one 
novel written by each. 

61. Name one poem of Shelley's. One of Keats'. 

62. Where will you find literary reference to Rebecca, 
Gulliver, Man Friday, Wayland Smith, The Tabard Inn, 
"Barkis is willin'", Dr. Primrose? 

63. What is characteristic of the writings of Thack- 
eray and of Dickens? 

64. Name the priucipal works of each. 

65. Who wrote the following: Hiawatha? Fable for 
the Critics? Maud Muller? Autocrat of the Breakfast 
Table? Thanatopsis? Uncle Tom's Cabin? 

66. Fill up these blanks: 

Snow-Bound, by 

, by Edgar Allan Poe. 

Walden, by 

, by Hawthorne. 

The Battle-Hymn of the Republic, by 

The Spy, by 

, by Bayard Taylor. 

67. Name the principal writings of Irving. 

68. Name ten of Cooper's works. 

69. Name five qualities in the Legend of Rip Van 
Winkle that render it well suited for dramatizing. 

70. Name one work by each of the following: Char- 
lotte Bronte, Bulwer, Charles Kingsley, George Mac- 
Donald. 

71. Give a sketch of Tennyson's life, and name ten of 
his best poems. 

72. Name in the order of merit the four ablest Ameri- 
can writers of fiction. 

73. Name the writers who used the following nom-de- 



ENGLISH LI 7 ERA TURE FOR R1RS 1 ' CR. IDE. 34 1 

plume*, and a work by each: Geoffrey Crayon, Ik Marvel, 
Hosea Biglow, Artemus Ward, Timothy Titcomb. 

74. Name three works by each of the following: Whit- 
tier, Longfellow, George Eliot, Carlyle. 

75. Who wrote Louisiana? Daisy Miller? The Rise 
of Silas Lapham? Ha worth's? Old Creole Days? Wash- 
ington Square? Ben Hur? 

76. Name the two most noted American literary peri- 
odicals. 1 



342 ENGLISH LITERATURE FOR FIRST GRADE. 



ANSWERS TO ENGLISH LITERATURE, FIRST GRADE. 

1. Beowulf, Caedmon's Paraphrase of the Scriptures, and the 
Anglo Saxon Chronicle. Beowulf is an epic poem of more than 
six thousand lines. It was composed by the Saxons before they in- 
vaded England, and recounts the great deeds and death of a hero 
named Beowulf, who slew the monster Grendel. The poem is sup 
posed to be allegorical, the monster representing the poisonous 
vapors from the marshes. Caedmon's Paraphrase of the Scriptures 
is a religious poem, in which he sang the creation of the world, the 
history of Israel, the book of Daniel, and the whole story of the 
life of Christ and of future judgment. It is told that one night in a 
dream a strange figure appeared to Caedmon and bade him sing of 
the creation. At once he became inspired, and the words of his 
song remained in his memory after he awoke. He died in 680. 
The Anglo Saxon Chronicle, supposed to have been composed at 
the suggestion of King Alfred, began with the arrival of Caesar in 
Britain, and was continued as a record to the accession of Henry II. 
It is written in prose, and furnishes valuable and trustworthy facts 
concerning the early history of the English people. 

2. King Alfred did much to free his people from ignorance. He 
secured high education to the clergy, and had the standard writings 
on religion, morals, and history translated into the language of the 
people. He translated many works himself, criticising the text as 
he saw fit. His writings are pronounced the purest specimens of 
Anglo-Saxon prose. 

3. Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London in 1340. It is supposed 
that he studied at either Oxford or Cambridge. In 1359 he was 
made prisoner by the French, but a year later was ransomed and 
returned to England. Later he became connected with the court, 
and married one of the queen's maids of honor. In 1373 he went 
to Italy, and is supposed to have met Petrarch and Boccaccio. He 
was elected to Parliament from Kent in 1386. He died in 1400. 

4. The Canterbury Tales. A series of tales in which, after a 
brief description of spring, the poet says that being about to make a 
pilgrimage from London to the shrine of Thomas a Becket in the 
cathedral of Canterbury, he passes the night at an inn in Southwark. 
Here he meets many pilgrims on their way to the same shrine. 
Chaucer imagines each of~them telling a tale. These tales give us 
an accurate idea of persons of different rank and occupation. 

5. Petrarch and Boccaccio. 

6. Sir John Mandeville was the first writer of English prose. 
He published a volume of travels in 1356. Its popularity is proved 
by the fact that many copies of it circulated in manuscript. 

7. John Wyclif. 



ENGLISH LITERATURE EOR EIRST GRADE. 343 

8. He first introduced the art of printing into England. He 
translated several works, and in all printed about sixty-four books, 
among which were the productions of Chaucer, Lydgate, and 
Gower. 

9. Wyclif made the first translation of the Bible, and Tyndale 
made the second. 

10. Sir Thomas More was one of the ablest men of his age in all 
Europe. He was the friend of Erasmus, and was appointed suc- 
cessor of Wolsey by Henry VIII. He was beheaded in 1535 be- 
cause he would not recognize the validity of Henry's marriage with 
Anne Boleyn. Utopia is his most famous work, and is a picture of 
an imaginary commonwealth, in describing which he finds opportu- 
nity for giving his views upon various social and political questions, 
as education, the oppression of the poor, etc. It was written in 
Latin and translated into English. 

11. The miracle plays or mysteries, given in cathedrals and 
churches, represented in a rude dramatic form legends of the lives 
of saints and striking scenes of Bible history. These plays began 
about 1100, and were employed by the clergy to give religious in- 
struction to the people, to strengthen the influence of the church, 
and to amuse rude hearers. The performances were popular to 
the end of the 14th centuiy. They were supplanted by the moral- 
ities, a kind of drama which, instead of being purely religious, was 
moral as implied by the name. Instead of saints, patriarchs, and 
angels, the characters who figure in the moralities were the virtues 
and the vices, with the addition afterwards of allegorical person- 
ages, such as riches, good deeds, confession, death. These plays 
died out about the end of Elizabeth's reign. 

12. He was born in London in 1552, and educated at Cambridge. 
After leaving the university, he became a tutor in Lancashire. In 
1578 he returned to London, and was introduced to Sir Philip 
Sidney and the Earl of Leicester, who took the poet under their 
patronage. Next year appeared his "Shepherd's Calendar." In 
1580 Spenser received an appointment in Ireland. A grant of con- 
fiscated land was given him not far from Cork, where he resided, 
far removed from society and strongly hated by the Irish. While 
in Ireland he wrote the " Faerie Queen." During the Irish rebellion 
of 1598 his castle was sacked and burned, and one of his children 
perished in the flames. He fled to England with his household, and 
died in London in 1599, in destitute circumstances. His principal 
works are "The Shepherd's Calendar" and "The Faerie Queen." 

13. Ascham wrote " Toxophilus," and later, when tutor to Queen 
Elizabeth, he wrote "The Schoolmaster." — Sir Philip Sidney wrote 
" Arcadia," a romance patterned after the Spanish romances. He 
also wrote the " Defence of Poetrie," which was in the form of a 
criticism.— Richard Hooker wrote four books on "The Laws of 
Ecclesiastical Polity," a defence of the Church against the Puritans. 
— Sir Walter Raleigh, during his imprisonment, wrote the " History 
of the World." 



344 ENGLISH LITERATURE FOR FIRST GRADE. 

14. The regular drama had its beginnings in the Miracle Plays 
and Moralities, spoken of in answer to the 11th question. The vir- 
tues and vices at length proved dull because they stirred no human 
sympathy. Historical characters were therefore introduced which 
represented a virtue or a vice. Brutus represented patriotism; Aris- 
tides, justice, etc. When the religious struggle of the Reformation 
came, men were not satisfied with subjects drawn from the past, 
and the Morality was taken advantage of by Catholics and by Protes- 
tants to enforce their several views. The stage was now becoming 
a living power. People, through this excitement, grew tired of the 
virtues and vices, and a demand arose for a comedy and tragedy 
that should picture human life in all its phases. The first English 
comedy — Ralph Roister Doister — was written by Nicholas Udall, and 
enacted in 1551. It is divided into regular acts and scenes, and is 
written in rhyme. The first English tragedy — Garboduc— was en- 
acted in 1562. After this follows several plays by different writers. 
These plays were performed in town-halls, court-yards of inns, and 
in noblemen's dining-halls. In 1576 the first theatre, "Blackfriars," 
was built. Two others, " The Theatre" and 'The Curtain," were 
set up in the same year. The theatres were in the form of a hexa- 
gon outside and circular within. They were open to the weather 
except above the stage. The play began at three o'clock; the nobles 
and ladies sat on the stage; the people stood in the pit or yard. 
Wooden imitations of towers, woods, etc.. were all the scenery used, 
and a placard stating the place of action was hung up when the 
scene changed. The female parts were acted by boys. Between 
1580 and 1596 we find plays by Lyly, Peele, Greene, Marlowe, Kyd, 
and the earliest works of Shakespeare. 

15. He was bom at Stratford on-Avon in 1564. He was sent to 
the grammar-school of his native town, but was probably withdrawn 
in his fourteenth year. At eighteen he married Anne Hathaway, 
who was eight years the elder. Three years after his marriage he 
left his wife and family and went up to London to seek his fortune. 
There he entered a dramatic company, becoming an actor and also 
a rewriter of plays. He rose steadily, becoming in a few years the 
most successful manager, and standing, moreover, foremost in the 
rank of literary men. His death occurred in 1616. 

16. Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, Julius Caesar, Richard III., The 
Merchant of Venice, Romeo and Juliet, Much Ado About Nothing, 
As You Like It, and Othello. 

17. In his knowledge of human nature; in the imagination he 
shows in portraying character; in the power to hide his own indi- 
viduality. 

18. Edmund Spencer, Christopher Marlowe, Robert Greene, Ben 
Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher, Francis Bacon, Sir Walter Raleigh. 

19. It was said of Francis Bacon. By Pope. It was not. 

20. It was a controversy in which certain writers claimed that the 
plays of Shakespeare were written by Francis Bacon. 



ENGLISH LITERATURE FOR FIRST GRADE. S4S 

21. His writings in philosophy, and his essays, which stand among 
the most finished works of pure English. 

22. They directed attention to the great value of the inductive 
system of investigation as a means of ascertaining scientific truth. 

23. Inductive reasoning begins by collecting facts, classifying 
them according to their agreement and difference, and gradually 
gathering from them laws of greater and greater generality. De- 
ductive reasoning consists in combining two or more general truths 
and thus reaching a conclusion which is a truth less general than 
the other two; or, in other words, that applies to fewer individual 
instances than the truths from which it was inferred. 

24. By a body of 47 divines during the years 1607-1611. 

25. John Wyclif made the first translation of the Bible about 1380. 
In 1525 Tyndale translated the New Testament. Miles Coverdale, 
Bishop of Exeter, made a translation of the Bible in 1535. Cran- 
mer's Bible appeared in 1540. 

26. "The Complete Angler."— "Holy Living and Dying."— 
"Hudibras." 

27. John Bunyan was the son of a poor tinker. He married a 
devout woman, and through her influence became converted. Be- 
cause of his religious belief he suffered imprisonment for twelve 
years, during which time he wrote the first part of "Pilgrim's 
Progress." He also wrote a religious autobiography called " Grace 
Abounding to the Chief of Sinners," and " The Holy War." 

28. During the time of Elizabeth. 

29. Milton's literary career divides itself into three great periods — 
that of his youth, his manhood, and his old age. The first may be 
said to extend from 1623 to 1640; the second, from 1640 to 1660, 
the date of the Restoration; the third, from the Restoration to the 
poet's death in 1674. 

30. In the first period, "Hymn on the Nativity," "L'Allegro," 
" II Penseroso," " Comus, the Arcades and Lycidas;" the second 
period, his pamphlets and " State Papers;" the third period, "Para- 
dise Lost," "Paradise Regained," "Samson Agonistes." 

31. From 1642 to 1660. 

32. In 1660, when the theatres were reopened at the time of the 
Restoration. 

33. When the theatres were opened after the Restoration, society 
was very corrupt, and the plays — mostly comedies — written to amuse 
the immoral public, constitute what is termed "The Corrupt 
Drama." 

34. Dryden lived from 1631 to 1700. His chief works were 
" Annus Mirabil is," "Absalom and Achitophel," "The Hind and 
Panther," a translation of the iEneid, "Alexander's Feast, or Ode 
to St. Cecelia." 

35. In a Grecian drama three rules were carefully observed: first, 
that there should be a distinct plot to which all minor parts should 



346 ENGLISH LITERATURE FOR FIRST GRADE. 

contribute, or unity of action; second, that the incidents of the play 
should naturally come within one day, or unity of time; third, that 
the entire action should occur in one place, or unity of place. Ben 
Jonson sought to observe these unities. 

36. Dryden, William Wycherley, William Congreve, Sir John 
Vanbrugh. 

37. The epoch of literature immediately following the time of 
Dryden. It lasted into the reign of George I. 

38. Locke, in "Metaphysics," and Newton, in "Astronomy and 
Natural Philosophy." 

39. Jonathan Swift was born in Dublin in 1667. He was educated 
at Trinity College, and afterwards was private secretary to Sir Wil 
liam Temple. In 1700 he was made a clergyman. He was a great 
politician, being at first a Whig, but later he became a Tory. While 
Dean of St. Patrick's, Dublin, he wrote his famous " Drapier's 
Letters," and other able political pamphlets. The most noted of 
his prose works is Gulliver's Travels. 

40. Stella and Venessa are fictitious names which Swift gave to 
two women, both of whom he professed to love. Venessa died 
broken-hearted, and, though Swift probably married Stella, he never 
publicly recognized her as his wife. 

41. Addison was the son of an English clergyman, while Steele 
was of Irish parentage. Their friendship began in their school-days. 
Steele's earliest works were "The Christian Hero," and several 
comedies. In 1709 he published a small paper called the Tattler. 
It was issued three times a week, and served the double purpose of 
supplying news as well as a series of brief essays on life, literature, 
or any other entertaining topic. After this came the Spectator, 
which was to be altogether literary in its character. This paper was 
published daily. Two years later he began the publication of a daily 
periodical called The Guardian, which continued about eight 
months. Addison contributed largely to all these papers, and his 
name is inseparably connected with the Spectator. In 1713 Addison 
wrote Cato, a tragedy, which was acted at Drury Lane Theatre four 
years later. He died at the age of 47. 

43. It was long regarded as the finest model of elegant yet idio- 
matic English prose. 

43. Johnson possessed a massive bodily frame and great muscu- 
lar strength. Pope was a man of dwarfish stature, being deformed 
and w?akly from birth. Johnson was gross and offensive in his 
manners, careless and slovenly in dress. Pope's manners were ele- 
gant, and he was vain and fastidious in dress. Johnson, though 
outwardly harsh, possessed great tenderness of heart, was generous, 
independent, invincible ; Pope was narrow and conceited, and 
craved admiration. 

44. Johnson's: A Dictionary of the English Language ; The 
Vanity of Human Wishes ; Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia ; The 



ENGLISH LITERATURE FOR FIRST GRADE. 347 

Lives of the Poets. Pope's: The Essay on Criticism ; The Rape of 
the Lock ; Windsor Forest ; A Translation of the Iliad and the Odys- 
sey ; The Dnnciad ; The Essay on Man ; Imitations of Horace. 

45. Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, 1719. 

( Pamela, 1741. 
Samuel Richardson : -j Clarissa Harlowe, 1749. 

( Sir Charles Grandison, 1753. 

{ Joseph Andrews, 1742. 
Henry Fielding: \ Tom Jones, 1749. 

( Amelia, 1751. 

( Roderick Random, 1748. 
Tobias Smollett: \ Peregrine Pickle, 1751. 

( Humphrey Clinker, 1771. 
t „„««««« afnmn j Tristram Shandy, 1761. 
Laurence Sterne : -j Scntimental j 0U rney, 1768. 

46. The biographer of Dr. Samuel Johnson. 

47. Oliver Goldsmith was born in Ireland in 1728. "When seven- 
teen years old he obtained a servant's scholarship at the University 
of Dublin. In 1755-6 he travelled on foot from England to Italy, 
playing his flute to gain food and lodging. While thus wandering, 
he sketched the plan of the Traveller. In 1756 he returned to Eng- 
land, and during the next eight years wrote Letters from a Citizen of 
the World, Life of Beau Nash, and a History of England. In 1766 
The Vicar of Wakefield appeared. This was followed by The 
Good-natured Man, The Deserted Village, She Stoops to Conquer, 
and the History of Animated Nature. The Deserted Village is his 
finest poem. In it he pictures chiefly tlie landscapes and characters 
of Lissoy, of which his father was pastor. He calls the village 
Auburn, but tells us it was the seat of his youth, every spot of which 
was dear and familiar to him. He describes the pastor, the school- 
master, the ale-house, and tells of the luxury that has killed all the 
simple pleasures of village life. 

48. A name which was given to the place where hack writers 
were said to live. The term now used is Bohemia. 

49. David Hume, History of England ; Edward Gibbon, The 
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ; William Robertson, His- 
tory of Scotland during the Reigns of Queen Mary and James VI. 

50. Macpherson, Chatterton, and Ireland. 

51. Charles Lamb, Cowper, Thomson, Gray. Adam Smith, 
Thomas Hood, Elizabeth Barrett Browning. 

52. Byron was born to rank and fortune, Burns to abject poverty 
and drudgery. Byron had all the advantages of education, while 
Burns was self-taught. Byron about his twenty-first year came 
suddenly into fame ; Burns, not until near his thirtieth, and then 
slowly. Both drank heavily, and undermined their constitutions. 
Byron was a libertine, Burns was incontinent. Both died early. 

53. [Answer left for the student.] 



348 ENGLISH LITER A TURE EOR EIRST GRADE. 

54. Burns': The Cotter's Saturday Night, The Twa Dogs, Tarn 
o' Shanter, To Mary in Heaven, A Man's a Man for a' that , Jolly 
Beggars. Byron's : Childe Harold, Don Juan, Giaour, Bride of 
Abydos, Prisoner of Chillon, The Corsair, Lara. 

55. William Wordsworth, Samuel T. Coleridge, Robert Southey 
Because they dwelt about the lakes of Cumberland. 

56. The Excursion, by Wordsworth ; The Ancient Mariner by 
Coleridge ; Roderick, the Last of the Goths, by Southey. 

57. Sir Walter Scott. 

58. Walter Scott was born at Edinburgh, in August, 1771 He 
was educated at the University of Edinburgh. He studied law in 
his father's office, and in 1792 was admitted to the bar. Four years 
later he first appeared before the public as a translator, and from 
that time his fame steadily increased Scott married a Miss Car- 
penter, a lady of small fortune. In 1812 he removed to Abbots- 
ford, where he built a fine mansion. In the financial crisis of 1825 
he became bankrupt. By hard literary work he paid off his debts, 
but ruined his health, and was induced to make a voyage to the 
Continent. He returned the next year, and died at Abbotsford in 
September, 1832. The Lay of the Last Minstrel, The Lady of the 
Lake, Marmion, Ivanhoc, Kenilworth, Quentin Durward, The 
Talisman, Woodstock, The Bride of Lammermoor, The Heart of 
Midlothian. 

59. Thomas B. Maraulay, History of England; James A. Froude 
History of England ; Edward A. Freeman, History of the Norman 
Conquest; William H. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico; George 
Bancroft, History of the United States. 

60. Bulwer Lytton, The Last Days of Pompeii; Charlotte 
Bronte, Jane Eyre ; Charles Reade, Hard Cash ; Anthony Trollope, 
Framley Parsonage ; William Black, A Princess of Thule. 

61. Ode to a Skylark; Ode to a Grecian Urn. 

62. Ivanhoe, Dean Swift's Gulliver's Travels, Robinson Crusoe, 
Kenilworth, Canterbury Tales, David Copperfield, Vicar of Wake- 
field. 

63. Thackeray deals with life in high society ; Dickens with that 
of low society. Thackeray expresses strong dislike against false 
pretences and sham sentiments ; Dickens' writings are generally 
humorous or pathetic. 

64. Of Thackeray: Vanity Fair, Pendennis, Henry Esmond, The 
Virginians, The Newcomes. Of Dickens: Nicholas Nickleby 
Oliver Twist, The Old Curiosity Shop, Barnaby Rudge, Dombey 
and Son, David Copperfield, Christmas Stories. 

65. Longfellow, Lowell, Whittier, O. W. Holmes, Bryant, Mrs 
Stowe. 

66. Snow-Bound, by John G. Whittier. 
The Raven, by Edgar Allan Poe. 
Walden, by Henry Thoreau. 



EXGLISH LITERATURE FOR FIRST GRADE. 349 

The Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

The Battle Hymn of the Republic, by Julia Ward Howe. 

The Spy, bv James Fenimore Cooper. 

El Dorado, by Bayard Taylor. 

67. Salmagundi, Sketch-Book, Diedrich Knickerbocker's History 
of New York, Tales of a Traveller, Life of Columbus, Life of 
Washington, Life of Mohammed, Bracebridge Hall. 

68. The Spy. The Deerslayer, The Pathfinder, The Pioneer, The 
Last of the Mohicans, The* Pilot, Red Rover, Water Witch, The 
Prairie, Wept of the Wish ton- Wish. 

69. The scenery would be beautiful, because the plot is laid in 
the Catskills ; there is a variety of characters ; the legend is humor 
ous, and also very pathetic ; one's sympathy is strongly appealed to. 

70. Shirley, The Caxtons, Hypatia, Robert Falconer. 

71. Alfred Tennyson was born at Somersby in 1809. While at 
school, he and his brother Charles made a volume of poems which 
was published under the title of "Poems by Two Brothers." At 
Cambridge in 1828, Tennyson gained the Chancellor's prize for a 
poem on " Timbuctoo." The first enthusiastic reception of his 
poems was a vol ume published in 1842. In 1850, on the death of 
Wordsworth, Tennyson was made Poet Laureate. Of his best 
known works are, In Memoriam, The Princess Maud, Idylls of the 
King, Enoch Arden, The Holy Grail, Queen Mary, Harold, The 
May Queen, The Charge of the Light Brigade. 

72. Hawthorne, Mrs. Stowe, Mrs. Burnett, W. D. Ho wells. 

73. Washington Irving, " Bracebridge Hall ;" Donald G. Mitchell, 
"Reveries of a Bachelor;" James Russell Lowell, "Among my 
Book? ;" Charles F. Browne, " The Letters of Artemus Ward ," Dr. 
J. G.Holland, "Gold Foil." 

74. By Whittier: Snow-Bound, The Tent on the Beach, Skipper 
Ireson's Ride. By Longfellow: Evangeline, The Courtship of Miles 
Standish, Tales of a Wayside Inn. By George Eliot Scenes of 
Clerical Life, Adam Bede, Middlemarch. By Carlyle: Sartor Re- 
sartus, Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, Life of Fred- 
erick the Great. 

75. Mrs. Burnett ; Henry James ; William D. Howells ; Mrs. 
Burnett ; George W. Cable ; Henry James ; Gen. Lew Wallace. 

76. The Century and Harper's Monthly Magazine. 



350 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 



CHAPTER XV. 
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

jfor £fjir& <5ra&c. 

1. Make out a daily programme for your grade. Give rea- 
sons for the order of the subjects and for- the length of 
time assigned to each subject. 

2. Describe the " word method " and the " phonic 
method" of teaching reading. State the several reasons 
that may be adduced for and against each method. 

3. In teaching reading, state which you regard the bet- 
ter method — printing the words or using script, giving 
reasons for your answer, 

4. Is there any objection in using both print and script 
in the first lessons in reading? 

5. Which is better in teaching reading — blackboard and 
crayon, or the chart and printed book, and why ? 

6. What words would you use in these early lessons in 
reading ? 

7. What is reading according to Colonel Parker's dic- 
tum f 

8. Give your method of conducting a recitation in the 
Second Reader, including the assigning of the next lesson 
and the instructions for the preparation of it. 

9. What attention would you give to spelling in the 
child's first year at school ? 

10. To what extent should the separation of words into 
syllables be used in teaching spelling ? 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 35 1 

11. In teaching number, would you teach the four 
fundamental principles at the same time or one after an- 
other ? 

12. What distinction would you make between learning 
number and learning the language of number ? 

13. At what stage should the use of objects in teaching 
number be discontinued ? 

14. Write out your method of teaching common frac- 
tions. 

15. Write out your method of teaching division of deci- 
mals. 

16. Has unwritten or " mental " arithmetic any advan- 
tages of written arithmetic ? Support your answer with full 
reasons. 

17. Give an outline of your plan with beginners in 
geography. 

18. What advantages and disadvantages has moulding 
in teaching geography ? 

19. In what respects do you think map-drawing is of 
advantage ? 

20. What use would you make of objects and products 
in teaching geography ? 

21. Make a topical outline for teaching the continents. 

22. In elementary geography would you, after teaching 
the locality, go to the county and then to the State, and 
from there to the United States, or would you take up the 
globe and from that go to the continents, and from North 
America to the United States ? Give reasons for the plan 
you favor. 

23. How would you use the knowledge gained from 
weather observations as a basis for teaching climate? 

24. In teaching United States History to a class whose 
average age is twelve years, would you use the topical or 
question method, and why? 

25. What use would you make of maps and drawing? 



35 2 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

26. Outline two consecutive lessons for a class just be- 
ginning grammar. State what knowledge you assume the 
pupils to have and upon which you base your instruction. 

27. Do you regard the analysis of sentences or parsing 
the more important, and why ? 

28. What advantages is it claimed result to pupils from 
the use of the vertical hand in penmanship? What dis- 
advantages result from the use of the sloping hand ? 

29. How would you conduct examinations, and of what 
should these be a test ? 

30. State several ways in which you would keep first- 
and second-year pupils busy at their seats. 

31. Lay out a plan of work for the first day in your new 
school. 

32. Would you allow your pupils to choose their own 
seats ? 

33. From what direction, with reference to pupils when 
in their seats, should light enter a schoolroom ? Why? 

34. At what temperature should the air of a school- 
room be kept ? Why should attention be paid to the 
humidity of schoolroom air ? 

35. How would you control whispering? How would 
you prevent tardiness ? 

36. What do you understand by the " pouring-in " pro- 
cess ? 

37. Who was Pestalozzi ? Who was Froebel ? 

38. Give an illustration of the application of the prin- 
ciple " from the concrete to the abstract " in the teaching 
of geography. In the teaching of fractions. 

39. To what extent is the teacher culpable if the ven- 
tilation of the schoolroom is not good ? 

40. Name seven school virtues. Seven school vices. 

41. State in what ways you would make the school in 
itself attractive ? 



THEORY AXD PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 353 

42. To what extent would you require apologies from 
pupils for misconduct ? 

43. What moral qualities should the teacher try to cul- 
tivate in his pupils ? 

44. What do you understand by Fitch's statement that 
"nothing influences character like character"? 

45. What daily preparation for work do you regard 
necessary ? 

Secontr ©fra&e. 

1.* What distinction is there between the knowledge to 
the teacher and the knowledge to the pupil of any subject 
taught ? 

2. What is Payne's view of the main business of the 
teacher ? 

3. With what arguments does he support this principle ? 

4. What does Payne mean by saying that learning is the 
process by which the child teaches himself ? 

5. What objections does Payne make to long explana- 
tions ? 

6. What would you do when pupils did not understand 
the definitions given them to learn ? 

7. Discuss each of these six points on Nature's way of 
teaching, and tell how far they should be followed and 
how modified by the teacher : 

(1) Nature's teaching is desultory. 

(2) Nature's teaching is often inaccurate. 

(3) Nature's teaching often appears to be overdone. 

(4) Nature's teaching does not secure the results of her 
lessons with a direct aim to mental and moral improve- 
ment. 

(5) Nature accustoms her pupils to little, and that the 
simplest, generalization. 

* These questions as far as the nineteenth are based upon Payne's Lectures 
on Education. 



354 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

(6) Nature is relentless in her discipline. 

8. What is method in teaching? 

9. What is meant by the art of teaching? 

10. What principle does Payne say underlies the " best 
method of teaching"? 

11. What are the fundamental elements of all knowl- 
edge ? 

12. What relation exists between sensations, perceptions, 
and conceptions ? 

13. What is memory ? 

14. What is the art of memory ? 

15. Name the processes ideas are subjected to by the 
mind. 

16. What is education according to Payne ? 

17. State the most important of the educational princi- 
ples of Pestalozzi. 

18. State the most marked principles of FroebePs edu- 
cational practice. 

19. What advantages are there in a well-prepared pro- 
gramme ? 

20. What is the difference between a descriptive method 
of teaching a subject and the method of development ? In 
what subjects is the one to be preferred to the other ? 

21. State what application you would make in your 
teaching of the educational maxim, " Learn to do by do- 
ing"? 

22. What is the aim and object of nature study ? 

23. In beginning the subject of grammar, do you first 
instruct pupils in the parts of speech, or in the elements 
and construction of sentences ? 

24. What are leading questions, and is there any ob- 
jection to them ? 

25. Mention two ways by which a pupil is benefited by 
a recitation. 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 355 

26. What are suggestive questions ? Is there any objec- 
tion to the use of them ? 

27. Name three proper incentives to study. 

28. State the principal means by which the teacher 
exercises educational influences upon the child. 

29. Should a teacher reject partial answers? Reason 
for your answer. 

30. Would you have what are called "whispering re- 
cesses "? Reasons for your answer. 

31. What method do you pursue in assigning lessons ? 

32. Mention some good qualities in any of your teachers 
that have assisted in moulding your character. 

33. Would you use the terms " carry" and "borrow" in 
addition and subtraction ? 

34. Write an outline of your plan for teaching numera- 
tion and notation. 

35. Repeating answers is a habit often acquired in 
teaching: why is it to be condemned ? 

36. What can be said in defence of it ? 

37. For what reasons is private reproof or correction 
preferable to public ? 

38. What are the hygienic reasons for adjustable seats 
and desks ? 

39. In what ways can a teacher promote the health and 
physical culture of his pupils ? 

40. What advantages are there in having a recess, in 
which pupils may engage in play, in the middle of the 
morning and afternoon school sessions ? 

41. Can you state what abnormal anatomical growths 
frequently cause dulness ? 

42. Make a list of the most common faults of children, 
and set forth a plan of correction. 

43. In what ways can a teacher promote the develop- 
ment of moral character among his pupils ? 



35^ THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 



jfor JFirst ^ratre. 

1. Illustrate by examples the presentation of some sub- 
ject analytically and synthetically. 

2. Give examples illustrating the meaning of the follow- 
ing: "Ideas before words"; " Go from the known to the 
unknown"; " One thing at a time." 

3. Do you believe this principle is correct: synthesis 
first and then analysis ? Give reasons for your answer. 

4. Name two of the most noteworthy recent improve- 
ments in primary instruction. 

5. Should questions be answered in complete sentences ? 
To what extent, and why ? 

6. If you were illustrating addition of fractions to your 
class, and should be asked by one of its members why the 
denominators were not added as well as the numerators, 
how would you explain ? 

7. What is meant by a development lesson ? 

8. Mention the faculties in the child's mind in the nat- 
ural order of their development. 

9. Distinguish between intellectual power and knowl- 
edge. 

10. Between knowledge and culture. 

11. Contrast the judgment of a child with that of an 
adult, and state what in general makes the difference. 

12. What difference is there between perception on the 
part of a child and perception on the part of an adult ? 

13. What advantages does class instruction for a pupil 
possess over individual instruction ? What disadvantages ? 

14. State and explain as fully as possible the most fun- 
damental principle of education. 

15. When should science teaching begin, giving reasons 
for your answer ? 

16. Can all children be made investigators, or are rou- 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 357 

tine methods sometimes necessary ? Give reasons for your 
answer, founded upon your own observation and study of 
pupils' minds. 

17. In your judgment, what limitations has oral instruc- 
tion? 

18. What plan would you pursue in teaching a child 
under twelve years of age English ? 

19. What is attention ? How may it be secured ? 

20. Define the terms objective and subjective. 

21. What is meant by the association of ideas ? 

22. Distinguish between the creative and the reproduc- 
tive imagination. Show the importance of the latter in the 
work of education, and how you would cultivate it. 

23. What is the distinction between inductive reasoning 
and deductive reasoning ? 

24. Distinguish between memory and imagination. 

25. Explain what is meant by apperception. 

26. Set forth a method of teaching percentage that 
would provide for easy apperception on the part of the 
pupil. Can you, in contrast to this, set forth a method in 
which apperception would be difficult ? 

27. What is meant by interest with reference to school- 
room instruction ? State several ways for arousing and 
sustaining interest. 

28. Explain what is meant by the correlation of studies, 
and give illustrations. 

29. What is meant by the educational value of studies? 

30. Distinguish between formal studies and content 
studies. 

31. What ends are to be subserved in teaching literature 
in the grammar grades ? 

32. Select any literary production suitable for a gram- 
mar grade, state what would be your aim in teaching it, 
and set forth your method for realizing that aim. 

33. Considering the public school as an institution, state 



35 3 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

what its purposes are and how these purposes may best be 
realized. 

34. What objections are there to promotion of pupils 
but once a year ? 

35. What objections are there to the promotion of pupils 
every six months ? 

36. What advantages are there in individual promotion 
of pupils ? 

37. Can you describe a plan used in any system of 
schools whereby pupils may be promoted according to their 
ability to do the work required by the course of study of 
each grade ? 

38. Explain what is meant by in loco parentis. 

39. Between what ages is growth in height of boys and 
girls respectively the greatest ? In weight ? 

40. What heed should be given to these conditions by 
the teacher in discipline and in exacting work of pupils at 
these ages ? 



ALGEBRA FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 359 

CHAPTER XVI. 
FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

ALGEBRA, GEOMETRY, LATIN, GENERAL HISTORY, 
PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOL- 
OGY, AND ASTRONOMY. 

These questions are selected from the examinations for 
State certificate of New York, from 1882 to 1888, and 
represent m general the knowledge of a subject necessary 
to secure a certificate of professional grade. 

ALGEBRA. 

1. Discuss, and illustrate by suitable examples, the 
treatment of a minus sign of a subtrahend, and of minus 
into minus in multiplication. 

2. Find greatest common divisor and reduce to lowest 
terms the following : 

12z' - lhxy + 3y* 



6x a — 6x*y -f- 2xy* — 2y* 



3. Find the values of the unknown quantities in the 
following : 

z-y 
3 

y , x + z 



x-—^ = l$%, 



= 1, and 
2z — 14?/ -{- x = 5. 



4. Add V(l + a)- 1 . Va 2 (l + a)- 1 , and 
a VJT+ a){l - a)~\ 



360 ALGEBRA FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

B «. a -9 . a; -4 4(z-16) 

5. Given -7= -^ =— p= -f* 

Vz + 3 4^-2 Va + 4 

to find the value of x. 

6. Discuss the methods of completing the squares in 
affected quadratic equations, and prove the correctness of 
each. 

7. Two cubical vessels have together a capacity of 1072 
cubic inches, and the sum of their heights is 16 inches ; 
what is the capacity of each ? 

8. Given x + Vx : x - Vx :: 3 ^7+ 6 : 2 Vx, to find 
the value of x. 

9. Prove the propositions in proportion employed in 
solving the last example. 

10. Four numbers are in geometrical progression. 
Their sum is 120, and the last term is to one half the sum 
of the means as 9 to 2. What are the numbers ? 

11. Find the literal value of x in the equation 



x + m = {m* + x Vn* + x)\ 

12. Expand, by the binomial formula, (« a — 2.r) 5 . 

13. Factor the quantity 21 x* - 3Qx + 15. Write the 
work in full. 

14. Derive the formula for the sum of an arithmetical 
series, when the extremes and the number of terms are 
given. 

15. A certain number is expressed by three figures ; 
5 times the value expressed by the left-hand figure is 2 
less than 2 times the value expressed by the right-hand 
figure ; the sum of the values expressed by the three fig- 
ures is 4 times the value expressed by the left-hand fig- 
ure ; and the product of the values expressed by the left- 
hand and right-hand figures is 4 more than the sum ot 



GEOMETRY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 36 1 

the values expressed by the three figures. What is the 
number ? 

16. Define and give an example (a) of a pure quadratic 
equation ; (h) of an affected quadratic equation. 

17. Expand (m -f- z 1 ) 5 by the binomial theorem. 

18. How may the first member of any incomplete 
quadratic equation be made a perfect square ? 

19. Explain the difference (a) between a coefficient 
and an exponent ; (b) between a factor and a term. 

20. Define (a) Mathematics ; (b) Algebra ; (c) symbols 
of quantity ; (d) symbols of operation ; (e) a residual 
quantity. 

21. What are the successive steps in the reduction of an 
affected quadratic equation ? 

22. Find the fourth term of the proportion 

z + y:(a + by ::x*-f:? 

Eeduce the proportion to an equation, and give reasons 
for the process. 

23. Find, algebraically, five geometrical means between 
.001 and 1000. 

GEOMETRY. 

1. Show the difference between an angle of an equilat- 
eral triangle and an exterior angle of an octagon. 

2. Show the difference between the square of the di- 
ameter of a circle and the square of a chord of 60°. 

3. What line measures the distance between two par- 
allel tangents, when that distance is greater than zero? 

4. A triangle and a square have equal areas, but the 
base of the triangle is two and one-third times the side of 
the square. Find an expression for the altitude of the 
triangle in terms of the side of the square. 



362 GEOMETRY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

5. Show the ratio of the area of a square to that of a 
second square constructed on the semi-diagonal of the 
first. 

6. The base of a hexagonal monument is 9 feet on a 
side. How much ground does it cover? 

7. Draw diagram, and show that the space included 
between the arcs of four equal circles tangent to one 
another is equal to the difference between the area of one 
of the circles and the area of a square whose side is the 
length of the diameter of one of the circles. 

8. Let a represent the longer and b the shorter of two 
lines. Demonstrate geometrically that 

(a - by = a' - 2ab + b\ 

9. Show how to circumscribe a circle about a scalene 
triangle. Then state and demonstrate the proposition on 
which your solution depends. 

10. Draw an oblique-angled parallelogram whose adja- 
cent sides are in the ratio of 2 to 3 — an acute angle of the 
parallelogram being an angle of 60°. Show all the work 
on the paper. 

11. When will the perimeter of a regular polygon and 
the periphery of an equivalent circle coincide? 

12. Find an expression for the circumference of a cir- 
cle in terms of the radius. 

13. What is the name of that regular polygon whose 
side equals the radius of the circumscribed circle ? Dem- 
onstrate the equality. 

14. State and prove the proposition for determining 
the sum of all the interior angles of a regular polygon. 

15. Demonstrate the following: If all the sides of .1 
regular polygon be produced in the same direction, the 
sum of all the exterior angles thus formed will equal 300°. 



LATIN FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 363 

16. Demonstrate the process of finding the number of 
degrees in one of the interior angles of any regular poly- 
gon. 

17. Prove that a chord of GO equals the radius. 

18. Prove that the areas of triangles having equal alti- 
tudes are to each other as their bases. 

LATIN. 
Caesar is accepted in place of some other designated subject. 

His (1) rebus (2) cognitis, exploratores centurion- 
e.sque pramiittit, qui locum idoneum (3) castris (4) 
deligant. Quum ex dediticiis (or dedititiis) Belgis reli- 
quisque Gallis complures Caesarem secuti una iter face- 
rent, quidam ex his (ut postea ex captivis cognitum est) 
eorum dierum consuetudine itineris nostri exercitus per- 
specta, (5) nocte ad Nervios pervenerunt atque (6) his 
(7) demonstrarunt, inter singulas legiones impedimen- 
torum magnum (8) numerum intercedere, neque esse 
quidquam (9) negotii, quum prima legio in castra (10) 
venisset reliquseque legiones magnum (11) spatium abes- 
sent, banc sub sarcinis (12) adoriri; qua pulsa impedi- 
mentisque direptis, (13) futurum, ut reliquae contra con- 
sistere non (14) auderent. 

N.B. The numbers in parenthesis belong with the word 
following them. 

1. Write, as nearly as possible, a literal translation. 

2. Write an idiomatic translation. 

3. Parse (1) and (2). 

4. Parse (3). Account for the mode of (4) and give its 
parts. 

5. Ut postea, etc. Why is not the verb in the subjunc- 
tive? 

6. Account for the cases of (5), (6), (8), and (9), and 
for the form of (7). 



364 LATIN FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

7. Give full declension of (5), and account for the form 
of the nominative singular. 

8. Parse (10) in full, account for the case of (11), and 
give the parts of (12). 

9. Parse (13) in full. 

10. Account for both the mode and tense of (14). 

11. Translate into Latin the following sentences: Little 
rills flow into great oceans. The Roman soldiers fought 
fiercely and conquered the enemy. 

12. Translate the following passage into idiomatic 
English: 

Erant hae difficultates belli gerendi, quas supra ostendi- 
mus, sed multa Caesarem tamen ad id bellum incitabant? 
injuriae retentorum equitum Romanorum, rebellio facta 
post deditionem, defectio datis obsidibus, tot civitatum 
conjuratio ; imprimis ne, hac parte neglecta, reliquae 
nationes sibi idem licere arbitrarentur. Itaque cum in- 
tellegeret omnes fere Gallos novis rebus studere,, et ad 
bellum mobiliter celeriterque excitari, omnes rait em homi- 
nes natura libertati studere et conditionem servitutis 
odisse, priusquam plures civitates conspirarent, partien- 
dum sibi ac latins distribuendum exercitum putavit. 

13. What portions of the first sentence are in opposition 
to multa ? 

14. Parse gerendi, obsidibus, rebus, studere (after lib- 
ertati), and latins. 

15. Give the principal parts of erant, ostendimus, odisse, 
partiendum ; decline omnes. 

16. Make a list of the connectives in the passage; and 
after each put the name of the part of speech to which it 
belongs. 

17. Translate: Si quid accidat Romanis, summam in 



GENERA L HIS TOR Y FOR PR( >FESSI( KVA /. GRADE. 365 

spem per Ilelvetios regni obtinendi venire; imperiopopuli 
Romani nop modo de regno, sed etiamde ea, quam habeat 
gratia desperare. Reperiebat etiam in quaerendo Caesar, 
quod proeliam equestre adversuni paucis ante diebus esset 
factum, initium ejus fuga? factum a Dumnorige atqueejus 
equitibus; nam equitatui, quern auxiJio Cassari ^Edui 
miserant, Dumnorix praeerat. 

18. Give syntax of regni, obtinendi, and equitatui. 

19. Write two Latin sentences, — one illustrating the 
use of the historical infinitive; and one, the indirect dis- 
course involving a subject in the accusative. 

20. What would you name as the benefits of studying 
Latin ? 

GENERAL HISTORY. 

1. Name the three great periods of history. State the 
time embraced in each, and the events marking their 
separation. 

2. State some effects of each of the following conquests: 
the Greek; the Roman; the Mohammedan; the Norman. 

3. Name the most illustrious persons of the Renaissance 
period. Tell to what country each belonged, and in what 
respect each distinguished himself. 

4. Give an account of Charles V. 

5. Give some account of the Trojan war, and the literary 
productions to which it gave rise. 

6. State one important fact in the life of each of the 
following persons: Aristides, Miltiades, Leonidas, Themis- 
tocles, and Socrates. 

7. "What two states were the chief opponents in the 
Peloponnesian war? What was the issue of the war? 
About how many years ago did it occur ? 

8. Between what leaders was the battle of Actium 
fought ? 



366 PHYSICS FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

9. What was the Spanish Armada? For what was it 
organized ? What were the results of its defeat ? 

10. Give a brief account of Charles I. of England. 

11. How and when was the Moslem power checked in 
its career of conquest in Europe? 

12. Mention the four events or series of events occur' 
ring between the fall of the Roman Empire and the mid- 
dle of the sixteenth century that, in your opinion, have 
had the greatest influence upon the civilization of to-day. 

13. Give two causes which led to the French Revolution, 
and name three persons prominent in it. 

14. In the French government what changes have taken 
place since the fall of Bonaparte in 1815 ? 

15. In the English revolution of 1689, what changes 
took place in the sovereignty of the nation ? 

16. What three sovereigns of England were the children 
of Henry VIIL? 

17. What positive evils and what incidental good re- 
suited from the crusades? 

1 8. What invention and what scientific discovery pre- 
ceded and rendered possible the geographical discoveries 
of Columbus and his contemporaries? 

19. By whom was the te Magna Charta " granted ? State 
something of its contents to show its great significance in 
English history. 

20. When did Victoria assume the throne of Great 
Britain ? When was she crowned Queen ? 

PHYSICS. 

^ * 1. A ball is hurled from the ground vertically with such 
velocity that it ascends 176 feet the first second. To what 
height will it ascend, and in how many seconds return? 

2. A 200-lb. weight is attached to a six-foot lever six 
inches from one end (fulcrum), and to the other end is 



PHYSICS FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 367 

attached a movable pulley. A rope fastened to fche ceiling 
goes through this movable pulley and over a fixed pulley 

fastened to the ceiling. What weight must be attached 
to the free end of the rope to balance the weight on the 
lever (friction and weight of rope, pulleys, and lever not 
considered) ? 

3. Illustrate by a figure and explain how a vessel may 
sail eastward with a north wind. 

4. A solid mass weighs 24 pounds in air, 20 pounds in 
water, and 16 pounds in another liquid. What is the 
specific gravity of that other liquid ? 

5. What influence have variations of density and tem- 
perature upon velocity of sound in air? 

6. If the barometric column stands at 30 inches, and 
the pressure of the atmosphere be 14.7 pounds to the 
square inch, what does a cubic foot of mercury weigh? 

7. Show the mechanical relation of the screw to the in- 
clined plane. 

8. What is meant by "persistence of force"? Give 
illustrations. 

9. Explain the action of a siphon. Give illustrations of 
natural siphons. 

10. Two closed tanks on the same level and below the 
level of the water in a reservoir communicate with the 
reservoir, one by one pipe and the other by two ; the pipes 
are all of the same size. What is the relative pressure of 
the water in the two tanks? Explain your answer. 

11. What absolute gain is obtained by the use of any of 
the mechanical powers ? Of what practical use are they 
in the economics of life ? 

12. State two causes that affect the boiling point of 
water. 

13. Explain the formation of frost. 



368 CHEMISTRY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

14. Explain the " echo." 

15. What is the theory of the cause of differences in 
color ? 

16. When and why does a clear body of water appear 
shallower than it really is ? 

17. Explain, using a diagram, how rays of light, par- 
allel to the axis of a convex lens, are brought to a focus. 

18. How are the prismatic colors produced by a drop of 
dew in the sunlight ? 

19. What causes short-sightedness? What causes long- 
sightedness? What kind of glasses are required for the 
former ? What for the latter ? Why ? 

20. On what does the action of the magnetic telegraph 
depend ? 

CHEMISTRY. 

1. Mention in full the difference between affinity and 
attraction of cohesion. 

2. What is an element? 

3. Do the specific properties of elements afford a means 
of ascertaining the specific properties of compounds? 
Illustrate. 

4. What is the meaning of the term atomic weight? 
What is the meaning of the term quant ivalence, or power 
of an atom ? 

5. What influence have heat and solution upon chem- 
ical action ? Why ? 

6. What relation to digestion has common salt in food ? 
?'. Explain the action of yeast in bread-making, and of 

sour milk in biscuit-making. 

8. If muriatic acid be poured upon marble, (a) what 
will be the phenomena, and (b) what the resulting pro- 
ducts? 



CHEMISTRY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 369 

9. Which of these products are found in the air, and in 
what proportions in a healthful atmosphere ? 

10. (a) Define allotropism, and (b) mention the allo- 
tropic forms of C and 0. 

11. Discuss the compounds of C and 0. 

12. How do pig-iron, wrought-iron, and steel differ 
chemically f 

13. If a spark be applied to a mixture of 18 grains of 
0, and just sufficient H to unite chemically with all the 0, 
(a) what will be the phenomena? (b) What compound 
will be formed ? (c) How much of it ? 

14. (a) Define isomerism, and (b) give some examples 
of it. 

15. (a) Define compound radicals, (b) give some exam- 
ples of them, and (c) state the department of chemistry 
in which they abound. 

^16. Discuss starch. 

17. What produces the light that comes from a lumi- 
nous flame ? 

18. State the benefits of a knowledge of chemistry to 
the world at large and to the average student. 

19. Give the common names of H 2 0, HN0 3 , H 2 C0 3 , 
NaCl, and N 2 0. 

20. For what is chlorine chiefly used ? What is its color ? 

21. State the distinctions between acids, bases, and 
salts. What effect has each upon vegetable colors ? 

22. Give a test for a soluble chloride, as indicative of 
sewage impurities in water. 

23. State the effects of carbonic-acid gas (1) upon ani- 
mal life ; (2) upon vegetable life. 

24. What is dynamite ? What is the one essential ele- 
ment in most explosives ? 



370 GEOLOGY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

25. What gases unite to produce the heat in the calcium 
light ? What causes the intense light ? 

GEOLOGY. 

1. Give a general classification of rocks. 

2. Account for the name applied to each term. 

3. Define the terms shale and schist. 

4. What is the difference between shale, slate, and 
grit? 

5. Explain the difference between stratification and 
lamination. 

6. What do you suppose to be the origin of petroleum ? 

7. What is gneiss f What is syenite ? 

8. In what geological formation would you look for 
trilobites ? 

9. What is argillaceous sandstone ? 

10. Give three characteristics by which quartz may be 
known. 

11. Mention the great geological eras, designating them 
with reference to the absence or presence of life and its 
development into higher forms. 

12. Mention two processes of nature by which granite 
may have been exposed on the tops of mountains. 

13. Give the general name of the rocks which formed 
the first dry land. 

14. Give (a) the general division of the tertiary strata 
in order, and (b) the etymology of the names. 

15. Of what part (depth) of the earth's crust have 
geologists a fairly reliable knowledge ? 

16. Give three or more arguments in support of the 
theory of internal heat. 

17. Which of the ingredients of granite form clay when 
worn down? 



BOTANY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 37 1 

18. What is the original position of stratified rocks? 
What their presenl position? Account for the change. 

19. What are metaraorphic rooks, and what evidences 
are there of the changes they have undergone? 

20. What are the principal moans of identifying rocks 
of the same stratum, ami of determining the relative age 
of the different strata? 

21. How do you account for the salt deposits of this 
State? 

22. What is the usually received hypothesis in regard 
to the origin of basaltic rock ? 

23. How may most carbonate rocks be detected? Give 
three examples. 

24. What is the dip of a stratum? What is its 
cause ? 

25. What are the relative geologic positions of old red 
sandstone and the carboniferous rocks? 

26. What present phenomena give a plausible explana- 
tion of the drift period ? 

27. To what age (or system) does the Medina sand- 
stone belong? The Potsdam sandstone? The Genesee 
sliale ? 

28. What evidence have we that at some period the sea 
covered all the land ? 

29. Explain the origin of the flint in chalk formations. 

30. Mention the leading geological features of your 
own county. 

BOTANY. 

1. What is the principal office of leaves? 

2. State the varieties of inflorescence, giving examples 
of each. 

3. How are strawberry vines propagated? 



37 2 BOTANY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

4. How can you determine, by examining a tendril, 
whether it is a modified stem or a modified leaf ? 

5. By what change or process of development are doulle 
flowers produced? 

6. What part of the flower becomes the pulp of the 
cherry ? 

7. In what part of the plant, Indian corn, do you find 
the pistils? 

8. Is the corolla of a sunflower monopetalous or poly- 
petalous? 

9. What is the difference between a cyme and a raceme? 

10. How would you distinguish a stem from a root? 

11. What are adventitious buds? What special pur- 
pose do they serve ? 

12. Assuming that a plant is composed of only these 
three parts, — root, stem, and leaf, — of what part or parts 
is the (a) apple-blossom composed? (b) The onion? (6-) 
The potato ? (d) The bean-pod ? (e) The thorn ? 

13. Mention five common evergreen conifers, and one 
that is deciduous. 

14. Mention some of the ways by which the flowers of 
plants are fertilized. 

15. Give examples of changes in plants that have been 
caused by cultivation. 

1G. Describe a tuber ; a bulb ; a corm. 

17. What part of the flower develops to produce the 
greater portion of the apple ? What part of the flower 
develops to produce the greater portion of the strawberry ? 

18. Give some account of plant-motion, with illustra- 
tive examples. 

19. Give some account of forestry, the objects of fores- 
try associations, and the necessity for preservative forestry 
laws. 



ZOOLOGY FOX PXOFMS^lOX A L GRADE. $/$ 

20. Compare the family Acer with the family Finns in 
regard to general form, form and permanence of leaf, and 

seeds and seed-vessels. 

21. What is fruit? Illustrate by naming the fruit of a 
potato-plant. 

22. What service do insects render in the fertilization 
of flowers ? 

23. Mention the parts of plants that are used as food. 
2-4. AVhat are the essential parts of a flower, and what 

are the functions of each ? 

25. Comparing an oak, a lilac, and a spire of grass : 
what differences do we observe in the stalk ; and to what 
divisions do these differences give rise? 

26. Comparing the leaf of an oak, a maple, and a plan- 
tain, what differences do we observe? 

27. Comparing the cross-section of a corn-stalk with 
that of a maple, what peculiarities do we notice? What 
do they indicate? To what classification do they lead? 

28. Comparing the pine and the elm, what is the most 
striking difference: and what names are given to the 
classes which this difference indicates ? 

29. Give an account of the eucalyptus tree. 

ZOOLOGY. 

1. Give the etymology of the word Zoology and define 
it. 

2. What is the application of the term fauna? 

3. What are the differences that distinguish reptiles 
irom batrachians (amphibians) ? 

4. How does the heart of a bird differ from that of a 
snake ? 

5. Assign the following to appropriate classes: (a) a 



374 ZOOLOGY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

cow ; (b) a red squirrel ; (c) a panther ; (d) an oyster ; (e) 
an elephant ; (f) a fly ; (g) a swan ; and (//) a whale. 

6. Describe your method of teaching zoology. 

7. What name is given to the family of birds that cor- 
responds in structure and habits to the carnivora among 
mammals? Describe two characteristic features of that 
family of birds. 

8. Describe the manner in which a butterfly takes its 
food. 

9. Give the names and locations of the different fins 
commonly found on a fish. 

10. Why are the whale and the codfish classed in the 
same sub-kingdom of animals? 

11. To which class of vertebrates do the porpoises be- 
long? Why? 

12. As a matter of education, what good will result 
from the study of zoology? 

13. To what order of mammals does the rat belong, 
and what are the characteristics of the order ? 

14. Describe the mole and its habits; and state the 
characteristics of the order to which it belongs. 

15. What characteristics of a bird's skeleton show adap- 
tation of structure to mode of life? 

16. Give general characteristics of structure and habits 
of the order raptores among birds. 

17. Give some account of the structure and transfor- 
mations of a frog. 

18. What are the two most important characteristics of 
a true insect ? 

19. State some of the prominent characteristics of ro- 
dents, and name five species belonging to the order. 

20. Describe the bat. To what general class of animals 
does it belong? 



21. What peculiar structure of the parrot tits it for tree- 
climbing? 

ASTKONOMY. 

1. Name and define all the kinds of bodies which com- 
pose the Solar System. 

2. Name and define, as far as is known, all the kinds 
of bodies which compose the visible heavens outside of 
the Solar System. 

3. Give particular descriptions of Venus, Jupiter, and 
Saturn, as seen from the earth. 

4. Give some account of the discovery of the planet 
Neptune. 

5. In the Solar System, what is found between Mars 
and Jupiter ? What is the theory which accounts for the 
same? 

6. Explain and illustrate by diagram what is meant, in 
planetary motion, by " passing over equal spaces in equal 
time." 

7. What is the general law of gravitation ? In applying 
this law to the relations of the earth to other bodies, what 
is taken as the unit of measure ? 

8. What is a constellation ? How do the signs of the 
zodiac differ from other constellations? 

9. Why is the same side of the moon always towards 
the earth? 

10. Enumerate some of the economic uses of astronomic 
knowledge. 

11. Mention the planets in order, beginning with the 
one nearest the sun. 

12. Define parallax, and describe a process for finding 
the earth's approximate distance from the sun. 

13. (a) What planets have satellites? (b) How many 
satellites has each of these planets ? 



376 ASTRONOMY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

14. Name five circumpolar constellations. 

15. Define the term variable star, and name one. 

16. Explain how the sun's rays can strike the north 
side of a building in this latitude. 

17. Under what conditions will an eclipse of the sun 
be annular ? 

18. On what part of the earth is the north star never 
visible ? Why ? 

19. By what terms is the location of a heavenly body 
indicated ? Explain their meaning. 

20. Explain the meaning of the terms conjunction, op- 
position, transit, asteroid, satellite. 

21. Why can there never be a transit of a superior 
planet? 

22. What is the difference between apogee and peri- 
helion ? 

23. What determines the location of the tropics of a 
planet? The polar circles ? The zones? 

24. Explain the difference between a solar day and a 
sidereal day. 



ALGEBRA EUR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 377 



ANSWERS TO ALGEBRA. 

1. From a — b subtract c — d. First subtract c. As the quanti- 
ties are unlike, c cannot be taken from a — b otherwise than by 
indicating the difference, which is a — b — c. But the quantity 
which was to be subtracted is less than c by d ; therefore, too much 
has been taken away by d, and to get the true remainder d must 
be added, which gives a — b — c-\-d. By inspection it will be 
found that the quantity d, having in the subtrahend the minus 
sign, appears in the remainder with a plus sign. 

Multiply a — b by c — d. First multiply a — b by c. a added to 
itself twice = 2a, three times = 3a, c times = ca or <ic. b, therefore, 
multiplied by c = be. The product then of a and c or ac is greater 
than the true product by b times c or be; for it was required not to 
multiply a by c, but a — b, a quantity less than a by b. Hence, 
the true product of a — b by c is ac — be. The multiplicand a — b, 
though, was to be multiplied by c — d. a — b multiplied by c givey 
ac — be. The multiplier used, c, is larger than the given multiplier 
by d, hence, to obtain the true product, d times a —b, or ad — bd, 
must be subtracted from ac — be, which gives ac — bc — ad-\- bd. 
By inspection it is seen that the factors, — b of the multiplicand, 
and — d of the multiplier, appear in the product as the term bd, 
having the sign plus. 

1 2a; 2 - 15zy + 3y 2 

6a; 3 — 6x*y -|- 2xy 2 — 2y' s ~ Multiply denomi- 
nator by _6 

36a; 3 - W&y + I2a%f - 12y 3 1 12s 8 - 15ay + 3y» 
36a; 3 - 45a; 2 y + 9a^ 2 3a; 

Sy\ Wy-\- 3gy* - 12y 3 Reject 3y 
12a; 2 - 15xy -f- 3y 2 [ 3a; 2 -f xy — 4y 2 
12a; 2 + 4xy - 16y 2 4 
- 19y | -19a;y-fl% 2 Reject - 19y 
3a; 2 -f- zy - 4y 2 1 g - y The G. C. D. 
3a; 2 - 3xy 3x + 4y 

Axy — 4y 2 
4xy — 4y 2 
_ I W -!&»+»» _ 3(4* -y) _ 

* "| 8x>- fcty + 2zy'- 2^-2(33' + ^) 



37 8 ALGEBRA FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

3. * - Z -^- = 19f = 21* -7z-\-7y = 417 

o 

§ + ^=l = 7y+3* + 32 = 21 



22 — 14# + x = 5 
7^ + 21*- 72 = 417 
7y-j- 3a; -f 32 = 21 

18*- 10z = 396 
7*+ 82= 47 
72* - 402 = 1584 
35* -f 402 = 235 
107* =1819 

* =17 

2 2 _ Uy + 17 = 5 
22 - Uy = 5 - 17 
22 - Uy = - 12 
-142 + 14^ = 120 



-122 



= 108 
2 =-9 

7y + 51-27 = 21 
7y = 21 - 51 + 27 
7y=-3 

* = — f 



22 — 14y -j- * = 5 

- Uy + * + 2z = 5 

Uy-\-6x + 6z = 42 

7* + 82= 47 



357 - 72 + ly = 417 
-72+7^ = 417-357 
-72 + 7^ = 60 



*=17 



4 |^T^ = ^X^= i ^^+-a 

a ♦/(!+ a)ir^p7 = fl /_LiL = _JL_ VT+-a 



l + o 



|/l+a- 



5. 



1+a ' 
*-4 



l + a + „ |/l + a = - ^l 4-a.^l7W. 

' '1 — a ' 1 — a 

_ 4(*- 16) 
1/^+3"^ |/*-2 _ |/* + 4 
V*- 3+ ^ + 2 = 4(4/*- 4) 

2*/* = 15 
4* = 225 
*= 56^ 

6. Can be found in almost any work upon Algebra— Loomis', 
Robinson's, Wentworth's, Wells', etc. 



ALGEBRA FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 379 

don (8) gives equation 

(7) ./■- — •2.ry-]-y' i = 4 
i — y = ± 2 
x + y = 16 



7. x = height 01 

y = " " 

(1) ^4-^ = 1072 

(2) a? + # = 16 


one vessel 

second " 


(3) S 8 
(4)z 2 


-• ty + jf 

+ 2*y^jr 


— 
_-25o 


(5) 
(6) 


'S.vp 
xy 


= ISO 

= 63 



2x = 18 or 14 

x = 9 or 7 

2y = 14 or 18 

y= 7 or 9 

x* = 343 4n*. 

Subtracting equation (6) from equa- V* = 729 ^.ft*. 

8. * + tfx : a: — tf~z :: 3 |^ + 6 : 2 tfx 
2x V~v + 2aj = 3a j/a -f & - 6 tfx 

§ \/x — x ^x -\-x Dividing by \/x gives 
6 = x -4- j/# Completing the square, 

*/* + *= ±1 

/- 5 1 

^ =± 2~2 

tfx = 2 or — 3 

# = 4 or 9 

9. If four quantities are in proportion, the product of the ex 
tremes is equal to the product of the means. 

a : b as c : d. 
Writing the proportion in another form, we have - = -3-. Clear- 
ing of fractions gives ad = be, the product of the extremes equal to 
the product of the means, which was to be proved. 

10. x = first term; Zxy* = 9xy + 9x t 

y = the ratio; 4xy z = 9xy -{- 9xy* 

xy = second term; 4y 2 = 9 -f- 9y Transposing and 

xy' 2 = third term; completing the square, 

xy 3 = fourth term; 4/ — 9y + f£ = \ 2 £ 

(1) x + xy + xy* + xy* = 120 2y - f = ±3$ 

a y»: a ^ + ^ ;:9;2 ^ = « or | 

3 y = 3 or £ 

Substituting first value of y in equation (1). 
x + 3z -f 9a; + 27^ = 120 
40z = 120 
« = 3. 
Substituting second value of y, 

x = 43ff 
First term, 3 or 43f£. 
Ratio 3 or J. 



380 ALGEBRA FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 



11. x -f m = Vm? + xVn' 1 -\-x 



x* + 2mx + w? = m * + x 4/w 2 -f- a? 

x -\-2m= \/n? -f x 

x* -f- imx -\- 4m 2 = n? -\-x 

x* -j- (4m — l)a? = n 2 — 4w2 Completing the square, 

. 4m — 1 



2 



= ± 1 |/4/i s - 8m + 1 



_ 4m — 1 ± y4n ~ — 8m + 1 
x - g . 

12. (a 8 - 2a-) 5 = (a 2 ) 5 - 5 (a 2 ) 4 2a? -f 10 (« 2 ) 3 (2a-) 2 - 
10 (a 2 ) 2 (2a-) 3 -j- 5 (a*)(2a?) 4 - (2a-) 5 = 

a 10 - 10a*x -f- 40a 6 .z 2 - 80a 4 x 3 + 80a«ar* - 32a*. 

13. 21a: 2 - 36a: -f- 15. It is evident that the first terms of the 
two factors might be 21a: and x, or 3a: and 7x, since the product of 
^ither of these pairs is 21.r 2 . Likewise the last terms of the two 
factors might be 15 and 1, or 3 and 5. From these it is necessary 
to select such as will produce the middle term of the trinomial. 
They are found by trial to be 21; x and x, and — 15 and —1. There- 
fore the factors are 21a: — 15 an da; — 1. 

14. 2 . 5 . 8 . 11 . 14 Increasing series. 
14 . 11 . 8 . 5 . 2 Decreasing series. 



16 . 16 . 16 . 16 . 16 

16 X 5 = 2 X Sum of series. 
TT (a + I) n 

Hence - — l ir L — = S. 

a 

15. x = unit's digit, 

y = ten's digit, 

z — hundred's digit, 
(1) 5z+2 = 2a: 
&) x + y-^z = 4z 
$) xz — 4 = x -f- y -f- 2 




XZ — 4 : 


= 42 (From 2 and 3) 
4 



x — 4 

20 

— - -f 2 = 2a; (Substituting in 1) 

2a: 2 - 10a? = 12 
x *-5x + ^ = ¥- 2=6 

x — f = ±| z = 2 

x= 6 y— 

206 Am. 



ALGEBRA FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 38 1 

16. Au equation containing no higher power of the unknown 
quantity than its square is a quadratic equation. If the equation 
contains the square only, it is a pure quadratic equation; as, bz* = c. 
But if the equation contains the first power ateo, it is an affected 
quadratic equation; as ax* -\- bx -h c = 0. 

17. (w»+«*) 5 

m = a 
3* = 8 

(« -f 6) 5 = a 5 + 5a 4 6 + 10a 3 6 8 -f lOa'ft 3 -f 5«6 4 + ft 5 

«i 5 + 5 (m 4 )(a£) + 10 (wa s )(aj*) a + 10 (w 8 )(arfy -f 5w («i)< -f (a;*) 5 

m 5 -j- 5w 4 .c3 4~ 10w 3 # 3 + 10m 3 x -j- 5roaP -j- x*. Ans. 

18. Reduce the equation to the form x' 1 -\-px = 9, and add to the 
first member the square of half the coefficient of x. 

19. (a) A coefficient shows how many times a quantity has been 
added to itself, while an exponent shows how many times the quan- 
tity has been multiplied by itself. 

(6) A factor of a quantity is an even divisor of that quantity, 
while a term is an algebraic expression, the parts of which are not 
separated by the signs + or — . 

20. Mathematics has been defined as the science of quantity. 
Algebra is a branch of mathematics in which the relations of num- 
bers are investigated, and the reasoning abridged and generalized 
by means of symbols. Symbols of quantity are the figures of 
Arithmetic used to represent known quantities and determined 
values, and the letters of the alphabet used to represent any quan- 
tities whatever, whether known or unknown. Symbols of opera- 
tion are the signs -j-, — , X, -=-, coefficients, and exponents, which 
denote respectively addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, 
the number of times a quantity is added to itself, and the number 
of times a quantity is multiplied by itself. A residual is an algebraic 
expression of two terms connected by the minus sign; as, a — b. 

21. z + y :(« + &)« :: x* - y* : ? 

a*x* -f 2abx* -f bW -aY — %dby* - bY A 

: . JxTlS. 

z+y 

22. Can be found in almost any work upon Algebra — Loomis', 
Robinson's, Wentworth's, Wells', etc. 

23. a = .001 * = «■"-! j. Formula 

Z = 1000 l = ar* formula. 

n = 1 x = Ratio. 

r—x 1000=.001z 6 

x 6 = 1000000 

3 = 10 

Inserted terms .01, .1, 1, 10, 100. 



382 GEOMETRY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

ANSWERS TO GEOMETRY. 

1. Let ABC be the angle of an octagon. By previous proposition 

the interior angles of a polygon are equal 
D b c t0 two right angles taken as many times 

as the polygon has sides less 2. The 
angle ABC being one of the eight equal 
angles of an octagon will equal -J- of this 
quantity. Then the angle ABC equals 
2 right angles X 6 _ 12 _ 3 
8 " ~8~ ~ 2" 

Hence the angle DBA, an exterior angle of an octagon, equals 
2 right angles — (ABC) = 2 right angles — f = £of one right angle 
or 45°. 

180° 
One angle of an equilateral triangle = —5- = 60°. The cliff er- 

o 

ence between an angle of an equilateral triangle and the exterior 
angle of an octagon = 60° — 45° or 15°. 

2. A chord of 60 ° is the radius of the circle. The diameter being 
double the radius, the square described on the diameter is 4 times the 
square described on the radius. 

3. The line joining the points of contact is a diameter, and is per 
pendicular to both tangents Therefore a diameter measures the 
distance between two parallel tangents, when that distance is greater 
than zero. 

4. x = side of the square; y = altitude of the triangle; 
x* = area of the square; Ixy A _ 

BfcB = base of the triangle; ~q = arca of the triangle; 

lay ., 6x 

The altitude of the triangle = £ of the side of the square. 

5. If the side of the larger square be represented by unity, the diag- 
onal is the square root of 2. The side of the second square V' 9 \\ be 

V2 

— -, and its area h Therefore, the ratio of the area of a square to 

d 

that of a second square constructed on the semi-diagonal of the first 
is 2. 

6. The base of the hexagonal monument may be divided into six 
equilateral triangles, with 9 ft. as the length of a side. By finding 
the area of one of these triangles and multiplying this by 6 we shall 
obtain the area of the hexagon 

A line drawn from the middle point of one side of the triangle to 
the vertex will divide the triangle into two right-angled triangles, 
the perpendicular of either being the altitude of the equilateral 
triangle. 

Ore half the side of the equilateral triangle, 4^ feet, equals the 



GEOMETRY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 383 

base of the right-angled triangle. Then 4£ ft. squared = ^ ft.; 
9 ft. squared = *%* ft.; &£* - V = ~ \\ 



y —r ' — ' o ~ ' ^' '^^tudc of equilateral triangle; 

= 35.055 sq. ft., area of equilateral triangle; 



4 
9 X 7.79 



2 
35.055 sq. ft. X 6 = 210.33 sq. ft. area, of base of monument. 

7. Let the circles be tangent in such a way that the lines connect- 
ing their centres will be perpendicular. Then each of the figures 




BAR, BCD, DEF, and i^^^will be a quadrant of its circle. 
But the circles are equal; hence each quadrant is equal to \ of any 
circle, and the four quadrants together are equal to one of the 
circles. The figure A E is equal to the square of the diameter of 
one of the circles, for its sides are perpendicular by construction 
and each is equal to the diameter of one of the circles, being com- 
posed of two of the equal radii. Therefore the figure B 3 F II, 
equal to the difference between the four quadrants and the square 
A E, is equal to the difference between one of the circles and the 
square of its diameter. But when the lines connecting their centres 
cease to be perpendicular, the proposition ceases to be true; for, as 
may be shown with equal coins, the circles may be rolled upon each 
other and still kept tangent, and the size of the figure enclosed by 
them will be changed, while the value of the circles and the squares 
of their diameters are constant. 



384 GEOMETRY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 



On a b construct the square a b if; from c draw dg parallel to 
b i\ lay off c d equal to a c, and 
from d draw d k parallel and equal 
to b a; complete the square eflk: 
then will e k be equal to b c, and 
efl k will be equal to the square 
of be. The whole figure abilke 
is equal to the sum of the squares 
described on a b and b c. The part 
cbig is equal to the rectangle of 
a b and b c; the part d g I k is also 
equal to the rectangle of a b and 
b c. If from the whole figure 
abilke the two parts cbig and 
& d g I £ be taken, there will remain 
the part a c d e, which is equal to the square of a c. Therefore 



/ 


1 








k e 


d 



ab* -f & c 2 -2abxbc. 



9. Bisect any two adjacent sides and through the point of bisec- 
tion draw lines perpendicular to the sides,, and produce these lines 
till they intersect. Connect this point of intersection with the 
vertices of the angles. Then from the intersection of the perpen- 
diculars as a centre, and with a radius equal to the distance from 
this point to the vertex of any angle, sweep a circle which will pass 
through the three vertices, thus circumscribing the scalene triangle. 

Prop. Through three points not in the same straight line, one 
circumference may be made to pass, and but one. 

Connect A, B, and G with straight lines. Bisect A B and B C by 
the perpendiculars E and F. These perpendiculars will meet in 
the same point 0, as B C is not the prolon- 
gation of A B. As E is perpendicular 1o 
A B at its middle point, A equals OB. 
{If a straight line be drawn perpendicular to 
another line at its middle point, any point of 
the perpendicular is equally distant from the 
extremities of the line ) For the same reason 
B is equal to C. Hence A = B = 
C. If a circumference be drawn with one 
of these lines as a radius, it will pass through 
the points A, B, and C. 

But one circumference can be drawn, for the centre must lie in 
E, otherwise it would be unequally distant from A and B. It 
must lie in OF, otherwise it would be unequally distant from B and 
0. As the centre is in both E and F, it must lie at their inter- 
section, and as the two lines can intersect in but one point, then 
there can be but one centre. Therefore, the proposition. 




LATIN FOR PROFESSIOXAL GRADE. 385 

10. Take A B as one side. Then at either extremity, as B, with a 
convenient radius sweep au arc adjacent to A B with B as a centre. 




At the point of intersection of this arc and A B, as a centre, with 
the same radius sweep a second arc intersecting the first at T. 
Through B and Fdraw B C a. distance of three units whose lengths 
are the halves of A B. Then the angle ABC will be one of 60 c . 
For if the three points X, B, and T be connected an equilateral 
triangle will be formed, each angle of which will equal 60°. 

Upon a line E G with a convenient radius construct an ansrle of 
60' adjacent EG 9 , as the angle FOE. Then will the angle FO G 
be its supplement. At J. as a centre with the same radius draw an 
arc adjacent to A B, intersecting it at Z From Z with a radius 
equal to chord F G measure off the same chord on the arc M Z. 
Through its extremity M and A draw A D equal to BO. AD 
and BO are parallel because they form the supplementary angles 
DAB and ABO. They are also equal by construction. Connect 
D and C, and DB will be a parallelogram fulfilling the conditions, 
for its opposite sides are equal and parallel, and its adjacent sides 
have the ratio of 2 : 3, and its acute angle is one of 60°. 

11. The perimeter of a regular polygon and the periphery of a 
circle wiD coincide when the polygon and the circle have the same 
diameter, and the number of the sides of the polygon is infinite. 

For the demonstration of the remaining problems, see any text- 
book on Geometry. 



ANSWERS TO LATIN". 

1. These things having been found out, scouts and centurions he 
sent ahead, who a place suitable for a camp should select. When 
from the surrendered Belgians and remaining Gauls a great many 
Caesar following marched some from these (as afterward from the 
prisoners was found out) of those days the custom of the march of 



386 LATIN FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

our army being seen, by night to the ISTervii came and to these, 
showed, between the separate legions of baggage a great amount 
to lie, neither to be anything of trouble, when the first legion 
into camp had come and the remaining legions a great distance 
should be away, this under packs to attack: which having been de- 
feated, and the baggage having been plundered it would be that 
the remaining in opposition to stand would not dare. 

2. When these things had been found out, he sent forward the 
spies and centurions to select a suitable place for a camp. When 
many of the surrendered Belgians and the other Gauls followed 
Caesar and travelled with him, certain ones of these (as he after- 
wards learned from the captives), after finding out our army's 
custom of marching in those days, went at night to the IServii and 
told them that a large amount of baggage came between each 
legion, and that there was no difficulty in making an attack upon 
the first legion impeded by burdens, when it came into ramp 
and the other legions were still at a great distance ; when they 
had driven this legion back and seized the baggage, the result 
would be that the others would not dare to offer them opposition. 

3. Rebus cognitis taken together form an ablative absolute, rebus 
being a feminine noun from res, rei. Cognitis is the perfect pas- 
sive participle of cognosco, cognoscere, cognovi, cognitus. It expresses 
cause and time, and modifies prcwnittU. 

4. Castris is a neuter noun, from castra, castrorum, the singular 
having a different meaning. It is found in the dative plural, 
after idoneum, a word of fitness. 

Deligant is subjunctive, because it expresses purpose with qui. 
It comes from deligo, delegere, delegi, delectus. 

5. Cognitumest is in the indicative, because ut here is comparative 

6. Nocte is an ablative of time, modifying perveneruni. 
His is a dative, indirect object after detno?istrarunt. 
Numerum is an accusative, subject of the infinitive intercedere. 
Negotii is a partitive genitive with quidquam. 
Demonstrarunt is in the third per. plural, perfect tense, and has 

ve dropped out. 

Sing. Plu. 

7. Nom. Nox. Noctes. 
Gen. Noctis. Noctium. 
Dat. Nodi. Noctibus. 
Ace. Noctem. Noctes. 
Voc. Nox. Noctes. 
Abl. Node. Noctibus. 

The nom. sing, nox comes from the union of the stem termina- 
tion and s, the regular nominative ending resulting in x. 

8. Venisset is a verb, and is found in the subj. mood, pluperfect 
tense, 3d per., sing. num. Its subject is prima legio, and it is 
modified by in castra. It is subjunctive, because it is a temporal 



LATIN FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 



3*7 



clause with a shade of cause in It. Spatium is in accusative, ex- 
pressing extent of space. 
Principal parts of adoriri are adorwr, adoriri, adortus sum. 

9. Futurum is the fut. infinitive with esse omitted. It is the 
principal verb of indirect discourse. It is future, because it was 
future in the direct. Its subject is the ut clause following. 

10. Auderent is subjunctive because it is an ut complementary 
clause, derived from result. It is imperfect, because it is incom 
pleted action in past time. 

11. Rivuli parri in oceanos magnos fluunt, 

Millies Romani acriter dimicarertini hostesque vicerunt. 

12. There were the difficulties, which we have shown above, to 
waging war; but nevertheless many reasons urged Caesar on to the. 
war — the wrong of retaining the Roman knights, raising a rebellion 
after surrender, defection after giving hostages, the conspiracy of 
so many states, and especially the fear that if this case were over- 
looked, other states would think that they might do the same. 
And so on learning that almost all the Gauls desire revolution, and 
are easily and quickly moved to war, and furthermore, that all 
men naturally desire liberty and hate a condition of slavery, he 
thought that he ought to divide the army and distribute it more 
widely before more states should conspire. 

13. The appositive of multa is injuriae arbitrarentur. 

14. Gerendi is found in the gen. sing, neuter of the gerundive, 
agreeing with belli. It comes from gero, gerere, gessi, gestus. 

Obsidibus is a noun of com. gender, coming from obses, obsidis. 
It is found in the ablative plu., and taken with datis forms an abla- 
tive absolute. 

Rebus, a fem. noun from res, rei, is found in the dative plu. after 
studere, which regularly takes the dative. It is modified by novis. 

Studere, with its subject omnes homines and its modifier natura 
and object libertati, is an infinitive object of intellegeret. It comes 
from studeo, studere, studwi. 

15. Bum, esse,fui. 

Ostendo, ostendere, ostendi, ostensus, or ostentus. 

Odi, odisse. 

Partior, partiri, partitus sum. 

Masc. and Fem. Sing. Neuter. Masc. and Fem. Plural. Neuter. 



ISTom. 


Omnis. 




Omne. 


Omnes. 




Omna. 


Gen. 




Omnis. 






Omnium. 




Dat. 




Omni. 






Omnibus. 




Ace. 


Omnem. 




Omne. 


Omnes. 




Omna. 


Ab. 




Omni. 






Omnibus. 




16. 


Quas. — Pronoun. 




JSfe.— Conjunction. 




Sed. 


, — Conjunction. 




Itaque. — 


" 




Tamen. — " 






Cum. — 


a 





388 HISTORY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

Et. — Conjunction. Priusquam. — Conjunction. 

Que. — " Ac. — " 

Autem. — " 

17. If anything should happen to the Romans, he had the greatest 
hope of obtaining the ruling power through the Helvetians ; under 
the rule of the Roman people, he despaired, not only of reigning. 
but even of keeping that popularity which he had. Caesar also 
found out, upon inquiry, that in the unsuccessful cavalry battle 
which had been fought a few days before, the retreat had been 
begun by Dumnorix and his cavalry; for Dumnorix commanded 
the cavalry which the JEdui had sent as a reinforcement to Caesar. 

18. Regni is in the objective genitive after spem. 

Obtinendi is the genitive case of the gerundive, agreeing with 
regni. 

Equitatui is the dative singular, object of p?'a>erat. Most verbs 
compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, pra, pro, sub, 
and super take the dative. 

19. Turn Cozsar Helvetiis Jidem et vitam polllceri. 
Existimavi eum venisse. 

20. (Left for student.) 



ANSWERS TO HISTORY. 

1. Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern. The Ancient period dates 
from the earliest period to the fall of the Western Roman Empire, 
476 a.d.; the Mediaeval period from 476 a.d. to the discovery of 
America, 1492; the Modern period from the close of the 15th cen- 
tury to the present time. 

2. The Greek conquest not only established the independence of 
the Greeks, but preserved the civilization of Europe. Their rule 
extended over all western Asia and Egypt. Greek language, litera- 
ture, and art spreading over this territory, imbued the conquered 
races with Greek ideas and Greek civilization. 

The Roman conquest brought to the conquerors control of im- 
mense territory, which led to the establish ment of a provincial form 
of government. The revenue gained by taxing the provinces was 
used in erecting fine public buildings in Rome and carrying out a 
great system of public works throughout Italy. Greek scholars 
flocked into Rome, the influence of their culture leading to native 
production. Italy became overrun with natives from the conquered 
lands, and the intermixture of these races resulted in the degeneracy 
of the Roman race itself. 

The Mohammedan conquest established the religion of Mohammed 
in the peninsula of Arabia and over a large part of Asia and Africa. 
It reached into Europe, but was finally arrested by Charles Martel, 
who appeared as a champion of Christianity. The Saracens iusti- 



hrrSTOHY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 389 

tuted universities and museums, and preserved and transmitted 
much that was valuable in tbe writings of the Greeks and Persians. 
The Norman conquest established in England " a strong central- 
ized government."' " A new feudal aristocracy" was founded; and 
England was brought into more intimate relations with the nations 
of continental Europe, by which means her advance in art, science, 
and general culture was greatly promoted. 

3. The Renaissance period— 1490 to 1G48-9. Savonarola, an Ital- 
ian, was leader of the democratic party in Florence. He preached 
asceticism, and violently denounced the degeneracy of the church 
and the paganism and vices of his time. 

Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angel o, Raphael, and Titian were 
distinguished as the great Italian masters of art. 

Columbus belonged to this period, and also Vasco da Gama, a 
Portuguese navigator, who discovered the route to India round the 
Cape of Good Hope. ^ . 

Magellan, a Portuguese admiral, circumnavigated the globe. 

Martin Luther, leader of the German Reformation. 

John Calvin preached Protestantism in its Presbyterian form at 
Geneva, and his followers spread through France under the name of 
Huguenots. 

John Knox preached the same doctrine in Scotland. 

William Shakespere, dramatist; Edmund Spenser, poet; Francis 
Bacon, philosopher ; John Milton, poet, were Englishmen. 

Ariosto and Tasso were Italian poets. 

Cervantes, a Spaniard, was the author of the romance "Don 
Quixote." 

Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, founder of the 'Order of Jesuits. 

Copernicus, a German astronomer, first questioned the Ptolemaic 
theory of planetary motion, and demonstrated its falsity. 

Galileo, an Italian astronomer, constructed the first telescope, and 
discovered the satellites of Jupiter and the ring of Saturn. 

Kepler, astronomer, established the law of planetary motion. 

4. Charles V., born in Ghent in 1500, was a grandson of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella. Through the death of his paternal grandmother, 
he became ruler of Flanders at fifteen years of age. A year later, 
Ferdinand died, and Charles was made king of Spain and its pos- 
sessions. In 1519, he inherited the duchy of Austria, and, in the 
next year, was elected Emperor of Germany, though both Francis I. 
of France and Henry VIII. of England sought the imperial 
crown. This last honor brought two serious troubles upon Charles. 
It involved him in wars with Francis I. and entangled him deeply in 
the religious controversy which had already begun in Germany. 
The direct cause of these wars with Francis was disputes about cer- 
tain French and Spanish possessions. Although these wars were 
very disastrous, keeping nearly the whole of Europe in turmoil for 
over twenty years, at the end they left the respective possessions of 
the two kings about the same as ; ( t the beginning. 



39° HISTORY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

During this period the Christians had suffered much persecution, 
but the doctrines of the reformers had been spreading. The cele 
brated Smalkaldic League had been formed by the Protestant 
princes. In 1546, Charles made war upon this league, destroyed it, 
and punished its leaders. His harsh treatment of the conquered 
confederates led to another uprising, and this time the Protestant 
princes, aided by Henry II. of France, son of Francis I., were the 
victors. While the Diet of Augsburg was convened to settle the 
affairs of the German states and arrange the religious peace, Charles 
V. resolved to abdicate in favor of his son Philip. Accordingly, in 
1556, he retired to a monastery in the western part of Spain, where, 
two years later, he died. 

5. The Trojan war occurred in the Heroic age of Greece, its 
legendary date being 1194-1184 b.c. Tradition says that a son of 
the king of Troy visited the Spartan king, Menelaus, secretly stole 
his wife, Helen, and carried her to Troy. All the heroes of Greece 
took up arms, sailed across the ^Egean sea and besieged Troy for 
ten years. The city w r as finally taken by stratagem. Acting upon 
a plan of Ulysses, the Greeks built upon the plains near the city a 
large wooden statue of a horse in which they concealed several 
warriors, and then retired to their ships. The Trojans gathered in 
wonder about the statue which the Greeks had ieft, and finally 
drew it within the walls of their city. At night the concealed war- 
riors left the statue, opened the gates of the city, and admitted the 
Grecians. Troy was thus captured, and was burned to the ground. 

During the time of the siege the warriors of the two armies 
fought upon the plains near the city in general battle as well as 
in single contest. Achilles was foremost in every fight, but his 
chief having taken from him a maiden wLo fell to him as a prize, 
Achilles became angry and refused to fight again. The Greeks 
sought his aid in vain till Patroclus, Achilles' friend, was killed by 
Hector. Then Achilles went forth, slew Hector, and dragged his 
body fastened to chariot-wheels three times around the walls of 
Troy. These latter events commencing with Achilles' anger and 
ending with the funeral of Patroclus and Hector, form the subject 
of Homer's "Iliad." 

Because the Grecian heroes had destroj^ed the altars of the Tro- 
jans, the gods showed their disfavor by compelling many of them 
to wander endlessly over sea and laud. The wanderings of Ulysses 
are told by Homer in his ' ' Odyssey. " 

6. Aristides w r as chosen the first president of the Confederacy of 
Delos(477B.c). 

Miltiades commanded the Athenians in the battle of Marathon 
and led them to victory. 

Leonidas held the pass of Thermopylae with a few hundred 
Spartans. He would not retreat, but remained fighting until every 
man was killed. 

In the naval battle of Salamis (480 b.c.) Themistocles directed 



BISTORY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 391 

ne fleets of the Greeks, and through his Btratagem the Persian fleet 
was overcome. 
Socrates, when unjustly sentenced to drink the poisonous cup of 

hemlock, met death calmly, ami during his last hours discoursed to 
his disciples on the immortality of the soul. 

7 Athens ami Sparta. Athens was defeated with immense loss. 
The war occurred, 431-404 B.C. 

8. Between Octavius and the combined fleets of Antony and 
Cleopatra, 31 A.D. 

9. The Spanish Armada was a large naval armament consisting 
of 130 ships, fitted up in the harbors of Spain by King Philip 11. 

Before the death of .Mary Queen of Scots, she bequeathed to 
Philip II. her claim to the English crown. The object of the Ar- 
mada was to secure this claim to Philip, to avenge .Mary's death, 
to punish Elizabeth for aiding Philip's rebellious subjects in the 
Netherlands, and to deal a fatal blow to the Reformation by crush- 
ing the Protestants in England. 

From the time of its defeat, Spanish supremacy among the states 
of Europe, and Spanish power, rapidly declined. England was left 
mistress of the sea; and the cause of Protestantism was made safe. 

10. Charles I. became king of England when 25 years of age 
(1625). He held the same idea which his father held, that the king 
ruled by " Divine Right, and therefore could not rule wrong." This 
brought him into immediate contest with Parliament. After dis- 
solving the first and second Parliament of his reign, he wasobliged 
to fall back upon Parliament for money necessary to carry on the 
governmen* The course he pursued with the body is marked by 
insincerity a«d an entire neglect of the lights of the people. From 
1629-1640 Charles ruled without Parliament, the law being en- 
forced by three courts known as Council of the North, the Star 
Chamber, and the High Commission Court. All these courts sat 
without a jury and were composed of favorites of the king. 

Many illegal and unjust taxes were imposed, and other rights of 
the people were disregarded. The attempt to impose the English 
liturgy upon the Scotch Presbyterians led to a riot in Edinburgh, 
and all classes of the people bound themselves by a covenant to 
resist this imposition of the king. War ensued, and Charles sum- 
moned Parliament, then dissolved it, because the Commons, instead 
of voting money for the king to use in the war, gave their attention 
to the grievances of the Scotch people. When the Scottish forces 
crossed the border Charles again summoned the two Houses, and 
this meeting of Parliament lasted twelve years, they having made 
a law not to adjourn or dissolve without their own consent. 

Parliament set to work to check the course of the king. The 
three illegal courts were abolished and the king's most un- 
scrupulous agents were beheaded. An attempt on the part of 
Charles to seize five members of the House whom he had charged 
with treason threw the country into civil war, which lasted six 



392 HISTORY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

years. During this war Oliver Cromwell came into prominence as 
leader of the Independents. At the battle of Naseby, the decisive 
engagement of the war, the Royalists were defeated and Charles 
fled to Scotland. Here he refused to sign the covenant, and there- 
fore was given up to the English Parliament. The king was kept 
a prisoner for some time, but finally it seemed as though he would 
become reconciled to Parliament and restored to authority. This 
so displeased Cromwell and his followers that they resolved to ex- 
clude from the House of Commons all the members who favored 
the king's restoration, and then try Charles for treason. He ap- 
peared before this court of enemies, but denied their authority to 
try him. Notwithstanding this, before the close of a week Charles 
was condemned to be executed, and in a few days he was beheaded. 

11. The Moslem power was met and checked in France by a 
powerful army under Charles Martel in the year 732 at the battle 
of Tours. 

12. The Crusades; the invention of printing; the discovery of 
America; the Reformation. 

13. The unjust and extravagant rule of the Bourbon kings; the 
wretched condition of the mass of the people. 

Lafayette, Marat, Robespierre. 

14. From 1815 to 1848 France was governed by kings. In 1848 
a republic was formed and Louis Napoleon was chosen president. 
In 1852 Louis was made emperor of France with the title of 
Napoleon III. In 1871 France was proclaimed a republic, and 
still retains this form of government. 

15. The Bill of Rights was added to the English Constitution, 
and made effectual by appropriate legislation. This Bill of Rights 
" transferred sovereignty from the king to the House of Commons; 
declared that all persons holding communion with the Church of 
Rome or uniting in marriage with a papist should be forever in- 
capable to possess, inherit, or enjoy the crown and government of 
the realm," and secured to the people all the liberties which the 
Stuarts had violated. 

16. Edward VI., Mary Tudor, and Elizabeth. 

17. The Crusades lasted two centuries and kept all Europe in a 
state of disorder during that period. It is estimated that from two 
to six million lives were sacrificed. From this there resulted license 
and crime. The church, through the death of crusaders, came 
into possession of wealth, which increased its power, its influence 
and authority. 

The civilization of the East was in advance of that of the "West, 
and through the contact with the Mohammedans a knowledge of 
several arts and manufactures was gained; education was stimulated 
in receiving from the Arabians the elements of arithmetic, algebra, 
geometry, and astronomy, as well as the first knowledge of Plato 
and Aristotle. Modern commerce was first developed during the 



PHYSICS FOR PROFESSIONAL GRAPE. 393 

crusades, and the common people began to acquire rights 'is the 
kings were compelled to grant charters of freedom to the towns. 

18. The discovery of the properties of the magnet, and the inven- 
tion of the mariner's compass. 

19. The "Magna Cbarta" was granted by King John in 1215, 

under compulsion of the barons in arms. It established a fixed 
mode of administering justice. Its most important declaration was, 
" No freeman shall be arrested, or imprisoned, or dispossessed of bis 

tenement, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any wise- proceeded against; 
we will not place or caused to be placed hands upon him, unless by 
the legal judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. Justice 
shall not be sold, refused, or dehayed to any one." 

20. Queen Victoria assumed the sovereignty of Great Britain June 
20, 1837. She was crowned Queen June 28, 1838. 



ANSWERS TO PHYSICS. 

1. The initial velocity, 176 ft., divided by 32 ft., the velocity it 
loses every second it ascends, gives 5J seconds, the time it is rising. 
The distance it rises always equals the distance it would have to 
fall from to acquire the same velocity. It would therefore fall in 
54- sec. (5i)' 2 X 16 ft. = 484 ft. ; or what is the same, it would rise 
484 ft. The body would return in 11 seconds. 

2. In the lever we have weight 200 lbs., weight's distance 6 in., 
power's distance 60 in., and power x. 

Then W. X W. d = P. X P. d, or 200 X 6 = X X 72, whence 
X— 16£ lbs., the weight that must be attached to the long arm of 
lever to balance 200 lbs. attached to the short arm. Regarding the 
diameter of a pulley-wheel as a lever, the weight's distance and the 
power's distance are equal in a fixed pulley, and therefore no power 
is gained; in a movable pulley the power's distance is double the 
weight's distance, so one pound of power will balance 2 pounds of 
weight. Hence 8£- lbs. must be attached to the free end of the rope. 

3. Let O be a point in the keel vertically below the centre of dis- 
placement of the boat. This is the point about which the boat turns 
Let OP represent the direction and force of the north wind on the 
sail. Resolve OP into two components, O Tin the direction of the 
sail, and Q perpendicular to the sail. O T can have no effect on 
the boat, but a component of O Q which is parallel to the keel will 
be the force by which the boat is driven forward. Therefore 
resolve O Q into two components, IT parallel to the keel, and OS 
perpendicular to the keel. OS tends to cause a sidewise movement 
perpendicular to the keel called leeway; OS also tends to turn the 
bow to the north with a turning moment equal to the product of 
OS into CD, its perpendicular distance from C. 



394 PHYSICS FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

Then OK is the only component of the original force OP that 
tends to move the boat forward. Also the product of the force 




.ST into the distance OB provides a turning moment opposite in 
effect to that of S into OB. Now the rudder must be set to coun- 
teract the turning effect of (0 8 . C B) -(OK. OB). 

Suppose the rudder held as shown in the figure. The water fur- 
nishes a resistance to its movement. Let the force R be the compo- 
nent of this resistance, parallel to tbe keel. Then the perpendicular 
distance between R and C is the lever arm on which R acts, and the 
turning moment furnished by the rudder equals the product of R 
into CA, which product must equal (OS .OB) - (OK. OB) in order 
that the boat may be kept in its course. 

4. The loss in weight of the solid when immersed in water is 4 
pounds, which is the weight of a volume of water equal to the solid. 
And since the solid loses 8 pounds when weighed in the liquid, 8 
pounds is the weight of a volume of tbe liquid equal to the solid. 
As a volume of the liquid weighs twice as much as an equal volume 
of water, the specific gravity of the liquid is 2. 

5. " The velocity of sound in air depends on the elasticity of the 
the air in relation to its density. The greater the elasticity, the 
swifter is the propagation; the greater the density, the slower is the 
propagation." A rise in temperature, other things being the same, 
would expand the air, making it less dense; hence sound would 
travel faster. 

6. When the pressure of the atmosphere is 14.7 pounds to the 
square inch, it will sustain a column of mercury one inch square 
and thirty inches high. Thirty cubic inches, then, weighs 14.7 
pounds; and 1728 cubic inches, or a cubic foot, will weigh 14.7 
pounds -*- 30x1728 or 846. 72 pounds. 

7. The screw is a modification of tbe inclined plane. If a piece 
of paper be cut in the form of a right angle triangle, and wrapped 
around a cylinder with the perpendicular of the triangle parallel to 




PHVSJCS FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 395 

the axis of the cylinder, the bypothenuse of the triangle will de- 
scribe a screw line on the surface of t lu- cylinder. 

8. By " persistence of force " is meant that any particular form 
of energy may be destroyed, but only on condition of an equivalent 
amount of energy in Borne other shape coming into existence. Illus- 
tration: Heat changed to mechanical energy, and this changed to 
electricity. 

9. Let a b o be a siphon. Supposing it full of a liquid, the liquid 
will flow from the short branch to the long /, 

one. The pressure of air upon the end of 
the siphon '-and upon an equal area of the 
water in the basin is the same. Bui the col 
mini of water in the longer branch is heavier 
than that in the shorter branch by X e. Con- 
sequently the liquid will flow from left to 
right. 

Intermittent w^ells and fountains are natural siphons. 

10. The relative pressure of the water in the two tanks is the same, 
as pressure is in proportion to the vertical depth, and is not depend- 
ent upon the shape or size of the communicating pipes. 

11. There is no absolute gain. By means, however, of these pow- 
ers, a force of small intensity may be made to act through a consid- 
erable space, and become transformed into a force of increased inten- 
sity acting through a proportionally diminished space. 

12. The pressure of the atmosphere or of confined steam, and the 
nature of the material of the containing vessel. 

13. Frost is deposited on bodies cooled below the freezing point 
by the solidifying, in the form of frost crystals, of the aqueous vapor 
in the atmosphere, without passing through the liquid state. 

14. Echo is caused by the reflection of sound waves. A reflecting 
surface, to produce the echo of a syllable, must be 112.5 feet distant; 
for taking the velocity of sound at ordinary temperatures to be 
1125 feet a second, and remembering the fact that not more than five 
syllables can be distinctly heard in a second, the syllables must fol- 
low each other at intervals of \ of a second, or be 225 feet apart. As 
this distance includes the going and returning of the sound, the 
reflecting surface must be distant 125.5 feet. 

15. Differences in the color of substances result from the fact that 
one portion of the colored rays combined in white light is absorbed 
in the surface of the body. A body appears red because it absorbs 
all the colors except red, which it reflects to the eye. It appears 
white when it reflects all the colors and absorbs none: black, when 
it absorbs all of them and reflects none. 

16. When the bottom can be distinctly seen, it, appears higher 
than it really is because of the refractive power of water. 

17. The line A B is the axis of the lens. The lines 1, 2, 3, 4, arc 



396 CHEMISTRY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

rays of light parallel to the axis and incident to Ihe surface X . 
At the points of incidence a, b, c, d, draw from the centre of curva- 
ture V, the radii ra, vb, ve, vd, which form the normals (or perpen- 
diculars). The rays of light in passing into the denser medium of 
the lens will be refracted toward these normals, and will strike the 
surface 0, m, at the points a , b' , c', d'. From the centre of this 
curvature W, and from these points, draw the normals a n, b'n, c'n,d'n. 
o 



"^~-- > 


^h 




h 








m 






w 






— £l 




c 




3 



The rays in passing out of the lens are refracted from the normals 
and come to a focus at A. 

18. By the refraction and reflection of the rays of sunlight. 

19. Short-sightedness is caused by a too great convexity of the 
cornea or of the crystalline lens, which brings the focus in front of 
the retina. 

The cause of long-sightedness is that the eye is not sufficiently 
convergent, and the image of objects is formed behind the retina. 
Concave glasses are required in short sight, as they cause the rays 
from objects to diverge, and thus throw the focus farther back. 
Long-sightedness requires convex glasses, which by their converg- 
ing power bring the image forward, and, if properly chosen, forni it 
on the retina. 

20. The production of an electro-magnet at a distance by making 
and breaking the circuit of a current of electricity 



ANSWERS TO CHEMISTRY. 

1. Affinity is the attractive force acting between atoms, causing 
them to enter into combination. It always acts between definite 
quantities of matter, and is often dormant until it is made active by 
heat or some other force. Cohesion is the force which binds mole- 
cules together, holding them in mass. 

2. An element is a substance which has not been divided into 
more than one kind of matter. 



CHEMISTRY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 397 

3. No. The properties of Bulphur and carbon differ, as is well 

known. When, however, the vapor of sulphur is passed through a 
cylinder heated to redness and containing charcoal, there is formed 
carbon disnlphide, CSa, a colorless, highly refracting liquid, which 

evaporates quickly, and whose f nines are poisonous. 

Mercury is a heavy liquid metal; chlorine is a greenish-yellow 
gas. These two elements unite to form HgCl, mercurous chloride, 
calomel, and HgCla, mercuric chloride, corrosive sublimate — the first 
is used as a medicine, the second is a deadly poison. 

4. The combining weight of an element compared with that of 
hydrogen is its atomic weight. 

The quantivalence of an atom is its combining power measured 
by the number of hydrogen atoms with which it can unite, or for 
which it may be exchanged. 

5. Heat and solution hasten chemical action, as they tend to over- 
come the force of cohesion. Heat in most cases will convert a 
solid into a liquid and a liquid into a gas, while in some cases it 
breaks up the molecules themselves. 

6. Common salt, NaCl, supplies chlorine for the hydrochloric 
acid which is one of the constituents of the gastric juice. Sodium 
is an indispensable constituent of the bile, without which the bile 
could not properly assist in digestion. 

7. The yeast changes into sugar a part of the starch of the flour, 
and then converts this sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide or 
carbonic acid gas. This gas, unable to escape from the glutinous 
dough, collects within it in bubbles and causes the dough to swell. 
The heat in baking kills the yeast plant and stops the fermentation. 

In biscuit-making with sour milk bicarbonate of soda is used. 
Carbonic acid gas is given off by the reaction of these two com- 
pounds with fermentation, as in the use of yeast. 

8. (a) If calcite is used a brisk effervescence ensues; (b) the re- 
sulting products are carbon dioxide, C0 2 , and calcium chloride, 
CaCl 2 . 

9. Carbon dioxide. It varies from 2.7 to 3.5 volumes in 10,000. 

10. (a) Allotropism is the capability an element has of appear- 
ing under different forms with different properties; (b) the allotropic 
forms of carbon are the diamond, graphite, and amorphous carbon; 
ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen. 

11. There are two compounds of oxygen andcarboD: CO, car- 
bon monoxide, and C0 2 , carbon dioxide. CO may be produced 
by heating in a flask 1 part by weight of potassium ferrocyanide 
and 10 parts of sulphuric acid. It is a colorless, tasteless gas, having 
a faint odor, and is a deadly poison. It is lighter than air, and 
burns with a lambent, blue flame. 

C0 2 may be produced by pouring hydrochloric acid upon lime- 
stone. It is a colorless gas, so heavy that it may be poured from 
one vessel to another. It is odorless, a non-supporter of combus- 



39 8 CHEMISTRY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

tion, and is soluble in water at ordinary temperature, volume for 
volume. Its presence in air to the extent of one tenth part pro- 
duces suffocation and death. An aqueous solution of C0 2 has an 
acid reaction upon litmus. 

12. They differ in the proportion of carbon and other elements 
present, either as mixtures or compounds. Pig-iron contains from 
two to six per cent of carbon, besides small amounts of sulphur, 
silica, phosphorus, and manganese. 

Wrought-irou contains less than one half per cent of carbon. 
Steel is intermediate between these two, and contains from seven 
tenths to two per cent of carbon, and a small amount of manganese. 

13. (a) An explosion takes place and the gases combine with loss 
of volume, (b) Water, (c) § of H 2 by weight is O; then 18 gr. 
of O is f of the resulting quantity of water, or 20 J: grains. 

14. (a) Different substances sometimes contain the same ele- 
ments in the same proportion. This peculiar phenomenon is 
called isomerism. (b) Acetic acid and methyl formate, though 
different substances possessing different properties, have the same 
formula, C 2 H 4 2 . 

15. (a) Compound radicals are groups of atoms which seem to 
determine the character of a molecule, (b) Methyl, CH 3 , formed 
by removing one of the hydrogen atoms from methane or marsh 
gas, CH 4 . It combines with one atom of an univalent clement as 
chlorine or bromine, forming the compounds CH 3 C1, CH 3 Br. Re- 
moving one atom of H from NH 3 , ammonia gives the radical NH 2 , 
amidogen, which uniting with one atom of potassium forms potas- 
samine, NH 2 K, and when combining with one atom of the radical 
methyl CH 3 forms methylamiue. (c) Organic chemistry. 

16. Starch, CeH^Os, is a substance found in all cereals, in the 
tuber of the potato plant, and in the roots, stems, and fruits of many 
other plants. It is composed of microscopic grains differing in size 
and shape in different plants. The grains swell and burst, forming 
a pasty mass, when heated in water nearly to the boiling-point. 
The various uses of starch are well known. The test for starch is 
iodine, with w T hich the starch paste forms a blue compound. 

17. The light is almost w T holly produced by small particles of 
carbon heated to incandescence. 

18. Left for the student. 

19. H a O, water; HN0 3 , nitric acid; H 2 C0 3 , carbonic acid; NaCl, 
common salt; N 2 0, laughing-gas. 

20. Chlorine is chiefly used as a bleaching agent. It is also a pow- 
erful disinfectant. Its color is yellowish green. 

21. Acids and bases are substances having properties chemically 
opposite. Acids have a sour taste, change certain vegetable colors, 
as the reddening of blue litmus, and have the power of giving up 
hydrogen and taking up metals in its place. 



GEOLOGY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 399 

A base has the power of neutralizing an acid, and restores most 
colors that have been reddened by an acid. 

A salt is formed by the reaction of an acid and a base, and has no 
effect upon vegetable coloring. 

22. Concentrate to one half of its volume the water to be tested. 
Acidulate with nitric acid, and then add a few drops of silver nitrate, 
Ag N0 3 . If a white precipitate results soluble in ammonia, NHJIO, 
and insoluble in nitric acid, HN0 3 , the presence of a chloride is 
indicated. 

23. Carbonic acid gas is destructive of animal life, the lungs being 
unable to decompose the gas and appropriate the oxygen it contains. 
It is indispensable to plant life. The leaves, roots, and green parts 
of plants absorb it in sunlight and give off oxygen. 

24. Dynamite is nitro glycerine absorbed by some porous inert 
solid. By experiment it has been found that a silicious earth found 
in Hanover is the best absorbent. This earth when dry is a white 
impalpable powder, and will absorb and safely retain three times its 
weight of nitro-glycerine. Nitric acid. 

25. Oxygen and hydrogen. The lime heated to incandescence 
emits the intense light. 



ANSWERS TO GEOLOGY. 

1. All rocks are divided into two great classes, viz., stratified 
rocks and unstratified rocks. 

2. Stratified rocks are more or less consolidated sediments, and 
are usually, therefore, more or less earthy in structure and of 
aqueous origin. Unstratified rocks have been more or less com- 
pletely fused, and therefore are crystalline in structure and of igneous 
origin. 

3. For first part see answer to 4th. 

Schist is a rock that breaks into slabs or plates owing to the 
arrangement of the mineral ingredients in layers; particularly the 
hornblende or mica. 

4. Shale divides easily into thin plates irregular and often fragile, 
but slate divides easily into thin, even, hard slabs. Grit is a coarse 
sandstone, not evenly grained, containing small pebbles. 

5. Strata are layers of rock and may be made up of many 
laminee. Strata vary from an inch to many feet in thickness. 

Laminae are the thin paperdike layers of the stratified rock, and 
are only found when the material is fine-grained. 

6. It is probable that petroleum was formed by a change of 
organic matter, somewhat similar to that which makes coal, but 



400 GEOLOGY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

from a different kind of organic matter, and under different 
conditions. Land plants, in the presence of fresh water, form coal; 
while marine plants, and sometimes lower animals, in the presence 
of salt-water, form petroleum, bitumen, etc. It has been observed 
that petroleum is often found in connection with salt, Le Conte. 

7. Gneiss is a crystalline rock consisting of quartz, feldspar, and 
mica, but having a bedded structure which is due to the arrange- 
ment of these minerals. 

If rock consists of feldspar and hornblende, or these with quartz, 
it is called syenite. 

8. In the palaeozic rocks. 

9. Argillaceous sandstone is a rock in which the sand is cemented 
together by a fine earthy or clayey material. 

10. By its hardness, 7 in the scale of hardness ; by its lack of 
cleavage ; by its infusibility. 

11. There are five geological eras. The first is the Archaean or 
Eozoic, characterized by no life or doubtful life. 

Second, the PaUeozoic era, which is divided into three ages, — 
1, age of invertebrates; 2, the age of fishes; 3, the age of acrogens and 
amphibians. 

Third, the Mesozoic era, which represents the age of reptiles. 

Fourth, the Cenozoic era, which represents the age of mammals. 

Fifth, the Psychozoic era, of the age of man. 

12. The presence of granite at the existing surface must in all 
cases be due to the removal by denudation of the masses of rock 
under which it originally consolidated. Encyclopedia Britannica. 

13. It is believed that the rocks which formed the first dry land 
have not been discovered, because the oldest known rocks are strati- 
fied or fragmental, and therefore have been formed from still older 
rocks. 

14. (a). Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene. 

(b). Eocene comes from two Greek words, meaning dawn and 
recent; Miocene, from two Greek words, meaning less and recent; 
Pliocene from two Greek words, meaning more and recent. 

r/Qoi = dawn, 
KaivoS = recent, 
ueioav = less, 
7tX6ia)y = more. 

15. They have a knowledge of the depth from ten to twenty 
miles. 

16. The earth is a spheroid; and that form would have resulted 
from the revolution of a heated mass on an axis. 

In sinking shafts for artesian wells, the temperature has been 
found to increase one degree for every 64 feet of descent. 



GEOLOGY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 4 QI 

A line of volcanic islands encircles the globe, and would indicate, 
by their eruption, tire beneath. 

17. Feldspar. 

18. They were originally horizontal, but are now tilted at all 
angles. The reason of this tilting is that the outer crust cooled first 
ana became fixed. Layers below then cooled and contracted, thus 
forcing wrinkles into the outer crust. 

19. A metamorphic rock is crystalline in texture, and is supposed 
to be formed from sediments, but has been changed by heat anil 
pressure. 

20. First, by what is termed the method of superposition, by 
which the lowest strata arc determined, these being conceded to be 
the oldest. 

Second, by means of the fossils. 

21. They must have been formed by the evaporation of lakes or 
seas at former geological periods. 

22. Basaltic material was thrown up in a melted condition through 
fissures, not only tilling them, but spreading over the surface above. 

23. Most carbonate rocks effervesce in acids. Calcite, Aragonite, 
Malachite. 

24. Dip is the angle or slope of strata that are inclined or tilted. 
Strata were originally horizontal in position, but have been more 

or less inclined by pressure. 

25 The old red sandstorm are included in the Devonian rocks, or 
second division of the Pa geozoic strata, while the carboniferous 
rocks constitute the third division of the Palaeozoic strata. 

26. The glaciers of the present time erode; leave grooves in the 
rocks over which they pass; transport and drop materials. 

27. The Medina sandstone belongs to the Niagara Period of the 
Upper Silurian; the Potsdam sandstone to the Primordial; the 
Genesee shale to the Hamilton Period of the Devonian. 

28. Limestone is found everywhere, and is the remains of animals 
that once lived in the sea. 

29. The silica which forms the flint has been diffused in small 
quantities throughout the lime, and, by some process not thoroughly 
understood, the soluble silica segregates into a form more or less 
spherical. 

30. Left for student. 



Indeterminate. 



402 BOTANY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 



ANSWERS TO BOTANY. 

1. To expose unassimilated food to the sun for elaboration. 

2. f Raceme— Lily-of -the- valley; 
Panicle — Meadow-Sweet; 
Corymb — Hawthorn; 
Umbel— Caraway; 
Head — Dand elion ; 
Spike— Plantain; 
Catkin — Willow ; 
Spadix — Indian turnip, Calla. 

tw™™;™^ S Cyme— Mountain Ash, Viburnum; 
Determinate, j P J scicle _ Sweel William. 

3. By runners which strike root at the end and produce new 
plants. 

4. If it came from the axil of a leaf, it would be a modified branch. 

5. In " doubling," stamens and pistils develop into petals. Any 
cultivated rose will illustrate. 

6. The outside of the ovary wall. 

7. The silk is a mass of pistils. 

8. Monopetalous The "flower" is a cluster. 

9. In the cyme, the terminal bud blossoms first; in the raceme, the 
stalk continues to grow and blossom above the first flower. 

10. A stem has leaves, or what answers to leaves; a root has not. 

11. Adventitious buds are those that appear seemingly by chance 
on the surface of the wood, especially where it has been bruised. 
They have been known to form on the root and leaves They grow 
out into slender twigs, and are produced on willows, as they afford 
excellent material for basket work. 

12. (a) Of leaves, (b) The end of the stem leaves, (c) A stem. 
(d) A leaf, (e) A stem. 



13. The pine, hemlock, juniper, cedar, arbor-vitae. The larch 
is a deciduous conifer. 

14. By the falling of flower-pollen on the pistil of the same or 
of different flowers. By insects. By the wind. 

15. The stamens of the wild rose change into the petals of the 
cultivated rose. Pond lilies have been made blue. Varieties of 
tomatoes have been made by hybridizing. 

16. A tuber is a thickened end of an underground stem. Ex- 
ample, a potato. 



BOTAXY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 4° 3 

A bulb is a thickened end of a stem wrapped in the thicktned 
bases of leaves. Example, white lily. 
A conn \- an enlarged end of an ordinary stem. Example, crocus. 

17. The calyx produces what is outside the green line which 
shews »v!jcd the apple is (ait horizontally. 

The receptacle develops into the greater portion of the straw 
berry. 

18. Movement of the contents 01 cell.': has been seen under a 
microscope— usually a streaming or rotary motion (Tape-grass, ;i 
water plant . 

Ordinary roots turn from the light, leaves toward it, even at the 
expense of much movement A leaf will turn if the wrong side is 
exposed to light. Twining stems (bean) turn successively in all 
directions, as do tendrils (pea). Tendrils curl from irritation also. 

The sensitive plant exhibit: motion from the same cause. The 
Venus fly-trap has a leaf that catches insects for food by closing 
suddenly when touched by them. Some pods discharge their seed : 
forcibly when touched (jewel -weed). In the fertilization of ferns, 
the bodies discharged from the antheridia travel over a moist sur- 
face by means of minute cilia. 

18. Forestry treats of the growth and characteristics of trees, dis- 
cusses their value, tells how they should be cut or preserved, and 
mentions their foes. The history of the old world and observations 
in our own country have convinced men that forests have an in- 
fluence upon climate. The removal of them exposes lands to 
winds. There is some reason to think that the amount of rainfall 
is affected by their presence. The leaf -mould and higher soil about 
roots hold water that evaporates slowly, or sinks into the soil, or 
supplies streams. 

It is the object of forestry associations to promote a knowledge of 
the science, and to create a sentiment that will lead to the preserva- 
tion of trees. Laws are necessary to this end, because there are men 
too selfish or short-sighted to appreciate the effects of forests. 

20. The Acer (maple) is less rigid in appearance than the Pinus 
(pine). Branches of the Acer seem continuous from the stem, those 
of the Pinus seem driven in. The leaves of the first are simple, 
palmately lobed. with stalk and blade: those of the other are needle- 
shaped. The Acer is deciduous, the Pinus is not The seed-vessel 
of the Acer is a closed body; the scale of a pine cone answers to a 
seed-vessel — the seeds being on the upper face. 

21. A fruit is a matured ovary with what adheres to it. The 
fruit of the potato is the "ball." 

22. They are one agency for depositing pollen on pistils not 
fertilized by stamens of the same flower. 

23. Roots, stems, leaves, fruit (ovary and calyx or ovary), seeds. 
(In confectionery we eat entire flowers.) 



404 ZOOLOGY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

24. Stamens and pistil; one to secrete pollen, the other to form 
seeds. 

25. The oak grows by one main stem that has much wood; the 
lilac by several stems, not so high; the spire of grass has little wood, 
and is low. They are respectively a tree, a shrub, an herb. 

26 The oak leaf is pinnately lobed; the maple palmately lobed; 
the plantain, entire. 

27. In a cross-section of a cornstalk the wood shows as dots at 
irregular intervals; in the maple, as rings. In the cornstalk the 
wood forms in threads at no fixed place. In the maple, a ring is 
one year's growth. The cornstalk is an endogen, the maple an 
exogen. 

28. The elm forms seeds in a closed ovary; the pine pistil is a 
scale. Classes are angiosperms and gymnosperms. 

29. The eucalyptus or fever tree is a native of Australia, and was 
brought into France at the beginning of the present century. It is 
only about thirty years, however, that its surprising medicinal quali- 
ties have been known. It has been planted near Rome; in Valentia, 
Spain; in Algiers, Mexico, Cuba, at New Orleans, and many other 
places, to counteract fever and malaria; and marked improvement 
in the healthfulness of these localities has been observed. Either 
by killing or absorbing the spores it prevents malaria and fever. 
The tree has a tall, smooth, reddish stem, with ragged bark and an 
odorous smell. The trunk is from forty to forty-five inches in 
diameter when grown. 



ANSWERS TO ZOOLOGY. 

1. From soon, an animal, and logos, discourse. Zoology treats of 
the classification, structure, and habitat of animals. 

2. According to Le Conte, a fauna is a natural group of animals 
in one place, differing more or less conspicuously from other groups 
in other places, and separated from them by physico-geographical 
boundaries, or by physical conditions of some kind. 

3 Reptiles have no gills, while amphibians have gills when 
young, and true lungs when adult; in reptiles the ribs are well 
developed, but in amphibians they are usually small or wanting; 
the skull of reptiles articulates with the spinal column by one 
condyle; in the amphibia the skull articulates with two condyles. 

4. The heart of a bird has four cavities, while that of a snake has 
three. 

5. (a), (b), (c), (e), and (h) to Mammalia; (d) to Lamellibranchiata; 
(/) to Insecta; (g) to Aves. 

6. Left for student. 



ZOOLOGY FOR PROF E SSI OX A 1. GRAFF. 405 

7. Raptores. They have a hooked bill, short strong feet, and 
sharp hooked claws. 

8. It has a long proboscis, by means of which the liquid food is 
pumped up into its mouth. 

9. The dorsal tins located on the hack; the caudal tin at the 
extremity of the tail; the anal tin on the abdomen near the tail; the 
vector al Una immediately behind the gill openings; the ventral tins 
on the abdominal surface near the pectoral. 

10. Because they have an internal jointed skeleton; a nervous 
cord on the dorsal surface, which is separated from the body-cavity. 

11. To Mammalia, because they suckle their young; the thorax 
and abdomen are separated by a perfect diaphragm; the red cor- 
puscles are double concave, having no nucleus; the heart has four 
cavities, and they have lungs. 

12. Left for student. 

13. To the order Rodentia. See answer to question 19 for 
characteristics. 

14. The mole has a long cylindrical body covered with thick 
velvety fur, somewhat grayish in color. The eyes are minute and 
almost hidden by the fur. The muzzle is long, with the nostrils 
close together. The fore legs are short and muscular, terminating in 
broad shovel shaped feet with strong flattened claws; the hind feet 
are long and narrow with slender claws. The mole lives chiefly 
under ground. Its habitation, which is in some secure place, as un- 
der a hillock or the roots of a tree, contains two circular galleries, 
one above the other, with five connecting passages, and a central 
chamber which has access to the upper gallery by three passages. 
Passages lead away from the lower gallery in several directions, to 
the animal's domain, where it tunnels in search of common earth 
worms — its chief food. Moles are very voracious animals, possess 
rapid digestion, and die in from ten to twelve hours if deprived of 
food. The mole breeds in spring and autumn, producing from four 
to five young at a birth. 

The mole belongs to the order of Insectivores. which are small, 
insect-eating animals. The molar teeth have sharp pointed cusps. 
The legs are short, and the feet are formed for walking or grasping, 
and are plantigrade with five toes and claws. 

15. The shape of the skeleton is such as to give a boat like form 
to the body, adapting it for easy movement through the air. The 
head is articulated by a single pivot, thus allowing a free turning 
of it. The breastbone is large, serving well for the attachment of 
the strong muscles which move the wings. The vertebral column 
has little flexibility. The ribs are stronger in proportion than in 
quadrupeds, and each rib has in the middle a flattened bony 
process which runs obliquely backward to the next, affording 
perfect freedom of breathing during flight, and giving strength to 
this part of the body for the powerful action of the wings. 



406 ZOOLOGY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE, 

Numerous air-cells penetrate the substance of the bones as well as 
other parts of the body to give buoyancy. 

16. Raptores, or birds of prey, differ from all other birds, except 
parrots, in having a strongly hooked bill and a waxy membrane 
at the base of the upper mandible; and from parrots in having 
three toes in front and one behind. The toes are armed with 
long, strong, crooked talons ; the legs are robust; and the wings 
are of considerable size, adapted for rapid and powerful flight. 
The bill is stout and sharp, and usually toothed. All are carnivo- 
rous. The female is larger than the male, except the condor. 

Orton. 

17. The frog's body has two parts, the head and the trunk, there 
being no tail and no neck. It has two pairs of limbs. The fore- 
legs are situated immediately behind the head, and are much 
shorter than the hind legs. Each fore-leg consists of three parts, 
which correspond to the arm, fore-arm, and hand in man. The 
manus has four digits answering to the second, third, fourth, and 
fifth fingers in man. There is no web between these digits. 

The hind legs have also three parts, which correspond to the thigh, 
the leg, and the foot in man. The foot is large compared with the 
other two parts, and has five long slender digits, which correspond 
to the five toes in man, and are joined by a thin web. The 
whole body of the frog is covered with a smooth, moist integu- 
ment which has neither hairs nor scales. There is a large dark 
circular spot on each side the head behind the eye, which is the 
outer layer of the membrane of the drum of the ear. The eyes 
are large and projecting, with well-developed lids which shut ever 
the eyes when they are drawn back. The upper jaw is set with 
many small sharp teeth, and there are two clusters of similar teeth in 
the fore part of the roof of the mouth. The lower jaw bears no 
teeth. The tongue is fleshy, free at its posterior end, and is attached 
at its anterior end to the middle part of the lower jaw. 

In addition to its lungs, the frog has a secondary apparatus for 
respiration— the skin. By keeping this moist, the blood is purified. 
Were it not for this the frog could not live under water. 

The diaphragm of the frog is situated in front of the lungs, and 
not behind them as in the higher animals. 

The frog has a vertebra but no ribs. 

While still within the egg, the embryo assumes the form of a 
minute fish, devoid of limbs, and with only rudiments of gills. 
After leaving the egg, the young acquire three pairs of external 
gills, attached to the sides of the hinder part of the head. The 
animal crops the aquatic plants, on which it lives, by means of the 
horny plates with which its jaws are provided. In the tadpole, as 
the larvae frog is called, the intestine, which is relatively longer 
than in the adult, is coiled up like a watch-spring in the abdominal 
cavity. A membraneous lip surrounds the mouth, and the muscu- 
lar tail acquires a large relative size. The eyes, and the nasal and 



ZOOLOGY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 4°7 

auditory organs become distinct, bul do limbs arc al first visible. 
A fold of tht' integument now grows back over the external gills, 
and unites with the integument covering the abdomen, leaving 

only a small aperture on the left side, through which the ends oi 
the external gills of that side may for some time be seen to [trot rude. 

The rudiments of the limbs appear, rapidly elongate, and lake 
on their characteristic shape; only the hind pair being at first 
visible, because the anterior pair are hidden under the fold of 
the integument mentioned above. The lungs are developed and 
for a time the tadpole breathes both by them and bv its external 
gills. 

As the legs grow, the tail -shortens, and, at last, is represented 
merely by the pointed end of the body. The gape elongates until 
the angle of the mouth lies behind the eye instead of a long way 
iu front of it, as in the tadpole; teeth are developed in the upper 
jaw and behind it; the intestine becomes less and less coiled, as, 
not growing at the same rate as the body, it becomes relatively 
shorter; aud the animal gradually changes its diet from vegetable 
to animal matters, the perfect frog being insectivorous. 

18. They are distinguished, first, by having three pairs of jointed 
legs ; second, by having head, thorax, and abdomen distinct. 

19. Their canines are wanting, the incisors are long and curved, 
two on either jaw growing perpetually. The molars are flat and 
well adapted for grinding. All the rodents are vegetarian. Nearly 
all of them have clavicles, and the toes are clawed. The rodents 
comprise about two thirds of all known mammals. They range 
from the equator to the poles. 

20. The bat belongs to the mammalia. It has very long fore 
limbs, adapted for flight, as the fingers are greatly lengthened and 
united by a membraneous web. One or two of the fingers, as well as 
the toes are set with hooked nails. Its clavicles are very long, and 
the sternum possesses great strength. The w^hole skeleton is ex- 
tremely light. Its eyes are small, its ears large, and its sense of 
touch is very acute. The bat's favorite posture when at rest is 
that of suspension by the claws, with its head downward. It flies 
in a dodging manner, and its habits are nocturnal. 

21. Its hooked bill. 



408 ASTRONOMY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 



ANSWERS TO ASTRONOMY. 

1. The solar system is composed of the sun, the planets and 
their satellites, comets, and meteors. The sun is the central body 
and the largest member of the system. The planets are bodies re- 
volving around the sun from west to east, in elliptical orbits. 
The asteroids are minor planets revolving around the sun outside 
the orbit of Mars. The satellites are small bodies revolving 
around the planets, and, with the planets, around the sun. For def- 
inition of a comet, see answer 16. Meteors are small, solid bodies 
revolving about the sun entirely independent of the earth, but 
which the earth encounters in its revolution around the sun. In 
falling through the earth's atmosphere, they become heated and 
give forth light. 

2. The stsirs and nebulae. The stars are bodies which give out 
light and heat, and which lie outside the solar system. Nebulas 
are faintly shining patches of light. Generally speaking, nebulas 
are thickest where the stars are fewest. Nothing is definitely 
known of the nature of nubalas. 

3. Venus, as seen from the earth, is the most brilliant and beauti- 
ful of all the planets. It presents phases exactly similar to those 
of the moon. At superior conjunction, the full disk of the planet 
is visible. This decreases gradually till at the point of greatest 
eastern elongation, when the planet has the form of the moon 
at first quarter. After passing this point, the planet wanes until 
near inferior conjunction, when its form is that of a crescent. 
Here its apparent diameter is more than six times as great as it 
was in superior conjunction. 

Irregularities of the planet's surface are indicated by the jagged 
line which separates the dark and bright parts of the disk. 

Jupiter is attended by four satellites, which move around the 
planet from west to east. When one of these satellites passes be- 
tween Jupiter and the sun, a shadow of the satellite is thrown 
upon Jupiter's disk. When it passes through Jupiter's shadow the 
satellite is eclipsed. When it passes between the earth and Jupiter, 
there is a transit and the satellite is projected upon Jupiter's disk. 
An occultation occurs when Jupiter is between the earth and the 
satellite. 

The disk of Jupiter is crossed by dark bands parallel to its 
equator and lying principally in this region. These bands are 
reddish in color, and their shapes constantly vary. Over nearly 
the whole surface of the planet are spread cloud-like forms, having 
every variety of shape, appearing at times as brilliant white masses. 

The light from the centre of the planet's disk is twice as bright 
as that from its poles. 

Saturn is of a dull yellowish color, surrounded by a pair of rings, 
and accompanied by eight satellites. The rings are the most 
striking feature of the planet. They are situated at a considerable 



ASTRONOMY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 409 

distance from the planet, in the plane of its equator, and inclined 
to the plane of its orbit about ~7 . Owing to this inclination, the 
rings at certain points of Saturn's orbit appear as a single line of 
light. 

The disk of Saturn is crossed by light and dark belts, though 
they are much more indistinct than those of Jupiter. 

4. Neptune was discovered in 1846. Certain perturbations in the 

motion of Uranus had been discovered after that planet had been 
observed about thirty years. This led astronomers to suspect that 
these irregularities of motion might be caused by an unknown 
planet. Several astronomers, among whom were Leverrier, of 
France, and J. C. Adams, of England, set out to compute the 
position and magnitude of a supposed planet, by which these per- 
turbations might be caused. The computations were laborious 
and long, and showed that the perturbations were such as might be 
produced by a planet about twice the distance of Uranus from the 
sun, and having a somewhat greater mass than this planet. The 
situation of the new planet was also predicted. Neither Leverrier 
nor Adams, who had been working entirely independent of each 
other, had telelescopes powerful enough to detect the planet; so 
they communicated the results of their computations to other 
astronomers having powerful telescopes. The astronomer who 
was searching at the suggestion of Leverrier was first to see the 
new planet, and so Leverrier obtained the chief credit of the dis- 
covery. An equal share of the honor, however, is accorded to 
Adams; for had not a series of accidents prevented, the planet 
would have been found by his computation of its elements. 

5. Asteroids or planetoids. They are accounted for on the theory 
that the nebulous ring which occupied the space between the orbits 
of Mars and Jupiter was perfectly uniform in density, and that 
therefore condensation took place equally all around it, and the 
ring was thus broken up into a group of small planets. 

6. Let A B C D E F be a planet's orbit and 8 the sun. Sup« 
pose the planet to move from Bio 
A in the same time it would from 
D to or from Fto E: then the 
shaded portions which would 
be swept over by a line joining 
the sun and the planet, in the 
equal times, would all be equal. 

7. Every particle of matte?' in 
the universe attracts every other 
particle with a force varying direct- 
ly as tlie 'product of the masses acted 
upon and inversely as the square 
of the distances between them. 

The earth's mass is taken as the unit. 

8. A constellation is a group of stars bearing such a relation to 




4IO ASTRONOMY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

each other as to suggest some form or figure. The zodiac is a 
belt in the heavens usually regarded as extending 8 C on each side 
of the ecliptic. It is mapped out into twelve parts or signs, each 
containing 30°. These signs take their names from twelve con- 
stellations which at an early time corresponded in position with the 
signs of the zodiac. Now, however, owing to the precession of 
the equinoxes, the signs and the constellations no longer correspond. 
Although the sun now crosses the equator and enters the sign Aries 
Dn the 20th of March, he does not reach the constellation Aries 
till nearly a month later. 

9. Because the moon rotates on her axis while making one revo- 
lution around the earth. 

10. Left for the student. 

11. Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, the Asteroids, Jupiter, 
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 

12. Parallax is the alteration in the apparent position of an object 
caused by a change in the position of the observer. Thus, a planet, 
viewed from one spot on the earth's surface, appears in a different 
position than it would if seen from another spot at a great distance 
from the first. 

The most accurate method of determining the earth's distance 
from the sun is not by calculation from the sun's parallax, but by 
means of the velocity of light. It has been determined within a 
second that light passes from the sun to the earth in 498 seconds. 
This multiplied by the velocity of light per second gives the dis- 
tance of the sun, a little less than 93,000,000 miles. 

13. The Earth has one; Mars, two; Jupiter, four; Saturn, 
eight; Uranus, four; and Neptune, one. 

14. The Great Bear or Ursa Major; the Little Bear, or Ursa 
Minor; Draco; Casseopeia; and Cepheus. 

15. A variable star is one which undergoes periodic changes of 
brightness. 

Algol, the demon star, in the constellation of Perseus, is a remark 
ably variable star. 

16. The sun at the equinoxes moves through the sky approxi- 
mately on the celestial equator. This great circle cuts the celestial 
sphere in the east and west points of the horizon. When the sun has 
north declination, or is above the celestial equator, it rises north of 
the east point and sets north of the west point. The sun would 
therefore, at rising and setting, and for a little time after rising and 
before setting, depending upon its declination, shine upon the north 
side of a building, which, by the conditions of the question, runs 
east and west. 

17. When the moon is so far from the earth that the vertex of 
the cone of shadow falls between the earth and moon, the moon 
will not cover the entire disk of the sun, and the observer will see 



ASTRONOMY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 4 1 l 

a bright riog around the dark body of the moon. This appearance 
is an annular eclipse. 

18. South of the equator. The north star marks very marly the 
north pole of the heavens. From the pole of a Bphere to the 
equator is 90 . At the north pole of the earth the north star would 
be in the zenith, or have an altitude of 90 . it one Bhould more 
south, the altitude of the star would decrease, and when one had 
gone 90 , or to the equator, the star's altitude would have decreased 

90 . It would therefore have no altitude or lie on the horizon 
line. 

19. Altitude and azimuth; righl ascension and declination; celes- 
tial latitude and celestial longitude. 

The distance of a heavenly body above the horizon, measured on 
a vertical circle, is altitude; the distance on the horizon from the 
north or south point to the point, where a vertical circle passing 
through the body cuts the horizon, is called azimuth. It is never 
greater than 90°. 

The distance a body is east of the meridian passing through the 
first point Aries, measured on the celestial equator or a parallel 
circle, is right ascension; the distance a hody is north or south of 
the celestial equator, measured on the meridian, is declination. 

The angular distance of a hody north or south of the ecliptic is 
celestial latitude; the angular distance a body is east of the vernal 
equinox, measured on the ecliptic, is celestial longitude. 

2(). A planet is said to be in conjunction with the sun when it is 
in the same direction as seen from the earth, or when it is in the 
same part of the heavens. 

It is said to be in opposition when it is exactly in the opposite 
part of the heavens from the sun. 

The transit of a heavenly body is its passage across the meridian. 

An asteroid is one of the group of small or minor planets revolv- 
ing about the sun outside the orbit of Mars. The eccentricity of 
their orbits amounts sometimes to one eight of the diameter, and* the 
inclination to the ecliptic in some intances exceeds ten degrees. 

A satellite, or secondary planet, is one that revolves around its 
primary, and, with it around the sun. 

21. The transit of a planet is its passage across the disk of the 
sun. As a superior planet is one having its orbit outside that 
)f the earth, it can never come between the earth and sun to cross 
the sun's disk. 

22. Apogee is that point in the moon's orbit farthest from the 
earth, while perihelion is the point in a planet's orbit nearest the sun. 

23. Its tropics are determined by the inclination of its axis to the 
plane of its orbit or the planet's ecliptic. The planet's equator, and 
the circle made by the plane of the planet's orbit cutting it, are 
great circles. The small circles drawn upon the planet, parallel to 
its equator, where the plane of the ecliptic cuts the planet at the 






412 ASTRONOMY FOR PROFESSIONAL GRADE. 

farthest point, below and above the equator, are its tropics. The 
small circles drawn from the poles of the planet's axis as a centre 
through the poles of its ecliptic are its polar circles. The zones 
are bands whose boundaries are marked by the tropics and polar 
circles. 

24. A solar day is the time between the two successive passages 
of the sun over the same meridian, while a sidereal day is the time 
between the two successive passages of the same star over the 
meridian. The sidereal day, therefore, is the time it takes the 
earth to rotate, and is 23 his. 50 min. 4 sec. of mean solar time 
long. The solar day is longer than the sidereal day, because the 
earth moves forward in its orbit during its rotation, and has there- 
fore to turn a little farther each day to bring the sun on the meridian 




